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HARPER'S ATLAS 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



^-3/ 



HARPER'S ATLAS 



OF 



AMERICAN HISTORY 

Selected from 
"THE AMERICAN NATION SERIES" 

With 
MAP STUDIES 



BY 

DIXON RYAN FOX, Ph.D. 

Assistant Professor of History 
Columbia University 




HARPER &> BROTHERS PUBLISHERS 
NEW YORK AND LONDON 



. 5 



THE 

AMERICAN NATION 

A History 

From Original Sources by Associated Scholars 

Edited by 

Albert Bushxell Hart, Pn.D.,LL.D. 

Professor of I list (jry, Il:ir\anl I'niversity 



Vol. 1 EtTRopEAX Background of American History. 
\iy Kdward I'otts (heynoy, A.M., Professor Kuropi'an 
History, I'niversity of Pennsylvania. 

Vol. 2 Ha.sis of .Vmkrican History. By Livingston Far- 
rand, LL.D., President University of Colorado. 

Vol. 3 Spain in .Xmerka. By the late Edward Gaylord 
Bonnie, Ph.D., formerly Professor of History, Vale 
I niversity. 

■i KNCL.VND IN .\merica. By Lyon Gardiner Tyler, 
LL.D., President of William and Mary College. 

5 Coi,oNi.vL Self-(;overnment. By Charles McLean 
.\ndrews, Ph.D., Professor of -Vmeriean History, Vale 
I 'niversity. 

6 Provi.ncial .\merica. By Evarts Boutell Greene, 
Ph.D., Profes.sor of History and Dean of College, 
I'niversity of Illinois. 

7 I'"lL\XCE IN .\merica. By the late Reuben Gold 
Thwaites. LL.D.. formerly Secretary of the Wisconsin 
State Historical Society. 

8 Preliimin.\hies of the Revolution. By George 
Elliot Howard, Ph.D., Professor of Political Science, 
I'niversity of Nebraska. 

9 The .Vmerican Revolution. By Claude Halstead 
\ an Tyne, Ph.D., Head Profe,s.sor of American His- 
tory, University of Michigan. 

10 The Confederation and the Constitution. By 
Andrew Cunningham McLaughlin, .\.>L, Head Pro- 
fessor of History, University of Chicago. 

11 The Federalist Sy'stem. By John Spencer Ba.ssctt, 
Ph.D., Professor of American History, Smith ('ollege. 

12 The .Ieffer-sonian System. By Edward Channing, 
Ph.D., Professor of Ancient and Modern History, 
Harvard University. 

1.'! The Rise of American Nationality. By Kendric 
Charles Babcock. Ph.D., Dean Col. .\rts and Sciences, 
University of Illinois. 

1-i Rise of the New West. By Fredericl: .lackson 
Turner, Ph.D., Professor of History, Harvard Uni- 
versity. 



\()1. 15 .Iacksonian Democracy. By William ^L•^l■Donald, 
LL.D., Professor of (iovernment. University of Cali- 
fornia. 



Vol. 
Vol. 

Vol. 

Vol. 

Vol. 

Vol. 

Vol. 

Vol. 
Vol. 

Vol. 

Vol. 



Vol. 1(! 
Vol. 17 

Vol. 18 

Vol. 19 

Vol. 20 

Vol. 21 
Vol. 22 

Vol.23 
Vol. 24 

Vol. 25 

Vol. 26 

Vol 27 



Slavery and .\dolition. By Alliert Bushnell Hart. 
LL.D., Professor of Government, Harvard University. 

Westw.vrd Extensio.n. By the late George Pierce 
Ciarrison. Ph.D., formerly Professor ()f History, Uni- 
versity of Texas. 

Partipis and Sl-WERY. By Theodore Clarke Snillli. 
Ph.D., Professor of -Vmerican History, Williams 



College. 

Causrs of the Civil War. By Rear-.\<lmiral French 
Ensor Chadwick, U. S. N., Retired, former President 
of the Naval War College. 

The .Vi'I'Eal to .\rms. By .huncs Kendall Hosmer, 
LL.D., formerly Librarian of tlie Minneapolis Public 
Library. 

Outcome of the Civil Wah. By .Tames Kendall 
Hosmer, LL.D. 

RECONSTRtrCTION. POLITICAL AND E^ONO^^^. By 

William .\rchibald Dunning, Ph.D.. Professor of His- 
tory and Political Philosophy, Columbia University. 

National Developme.vt. By Edwin Erie Si)arks, 
Ph.D., President Pennsylvania State College. 

Nation.\l Phohlems. By Davis H. Dewey. Ph.D., 

Professor of Economics, Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology. 

America as .\ World Power. B,\' John H. Latane, 
Ph.D.. Professor of American History, Johns Hopkins 

University. 

National Ide.vls Historically Tr.\ced. By .Mlxrt 
Bushnell Hart, LL.D., Professor of Government, 
Harvard University. 

National Progress — 1907 - 1917. By Frederic 
.•\ustiii Ogir. Pli.D., Profes.sor of Political Science, 
I'niversity of ^^'isconsin. 

VoL 2S Index to the Series. By David Maydole Matteson, 
A.M., Harvard College Library. 



HARPER y BROTHERS, PT BLISIIERS 



An Atlas of Amkrican History 



Copyright 1020, by Hiirpor & Brothers 

Printed ia the United States of America 

H-C 



LIST OF MAPS 



PAGE 

United States, 1917 Frontispiece 

Mediseval Trade Routes Across Asia 1 

Conquests of the Ottoman Turks, 1300-1.3'25 . . 2 
The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus, 149ii- 

1503 3 

Schoner's Globe, with Magellan's Route and De- 
marcation Line 4 

Portuguese Discoveries on the Cojist of Africa. 1340- 

1-1,98 4 

Development of North America, 1492-1564 . . 5 
Distribution of American Indians About 1500 by 

Linguistic Stocks 6 

Virginia in 1652 7 

Virginia and the Carolinas, 1089 7 

Extent of Settlement, 1652 . 8 

New England, New York, and East New Jersey, 

1689 9 

Pennsylvania, West New Jersey, Delaware, and 

Maryland, 1689 10 

Territory of the Five Nations About 1050 ... 11 

Settlement of Georgia, 1732-1763 11 

North America, Showing European Claims, Occu- 
pations, and Settlements, 1689 12 

Progress of French Discovery in the Literior, 1600- 

1762 13 

Eastern North America, 1715 14 

ThcTar West, 1686-1754 15 

The Western Frontier, 1763 15 

British Possessions in North America, 1765 . . 10 

Proposed Western Colonies, 1763-1775 .... 17 
Seat of War in the Eastern and IMiddle States, 1775- 

1780 18 

I. Lake Champlain to ^Vlbany 
n. Albany to New York 
III. New Y'ork to Delaware Bay 

Seat of War in the Southern States 1775-1781 . . 19 



PAQE 

The West, 1775-1782 19 

Division of the West Proposed by France, Sept. 6, 

1782, as Located on Mitchell's Map of 1755 . . 20 

State Claims to Western Lands, 1783-1802 ... 21 

Georgia Claims and Spanish Boundary, 1789-1802 21 

Distribution of Votes in Ratification of the Consti- 
tution, New England, 1787-1790 22 

Distribution of Votes in Ratification of the Consti- 
tution, Middle and Southern States, 1787-1788 . 22 

Distribution of Population, 1790 23 

Distribution of Population, 1800 23 

Presidential Election of 1800 23 

Presidential Election by States of 1801 .... 23 

The United States, 1800 24 

Route of Lewis and Clark to Oregon and Return. 

1803-1806 25 

Route of Aaron Burr, 1806-1807 2C 

West Florida, 1803-1819 26 

West Florida Under the English, 1763-1780 . . 26 

West Florida, 1756 26 

United States and Canada, 1810 27 

Lidian Cessions in the Northwest, 1789-1816 . . 28 

Northern Campaign, 1812-1814 (with Inset) . . 28 

Chesapeake Campaign, 1814 29 

Treaty with Spain, 1819 30 

House Vote on the Tariff, April 18, 1810 .... 31 

Jackson's Lidian and Gulf Campaigns, 1813-1818 31 

Cessions of Indian Lands, 1816-1830 32 

Distribution of Population, 1820 33 

Distribution of Population, 1830 33 

Presidential Election of 1824, Electoral Vote . . 33 
Presidential Election of 1825, in House of Repre- 
sentatives 33 

Highways and Waterways in the United States, 

1826-1830 34 



LIST OF 

PAGK 

Latin Aiinricim Slates, ISW 35 

House Vote on Tariff Bill, .Vpril 16, 18^4 .... 35 

IIousi- Vote on Tariff Hill. April '2->, 18-28 .... 35 
\Yestorn Indians. Trailing Posts, luul Routes of 

Travel, 1S.J0-1S35 36 

Tnitcl States. IS-'l 37 

InitiHl States, 1830 38 

House Vote on Biuik Bill of ISSe 3!) 

House Vote on Foree Bill of 1833 39 

Reinovjil of Southern Intlians. 1830-1884 . . . 3!) 

Distribution of Population. 1830 40 

Distribution of Population. 1840 40 

Pn-siilential EUvtion. 1836 40 

Presidentijil Eleetion. 1840 40 

Texius St>ttlements. 1S1!)-1837 41 

Routes of the l'n.lers;r»>\n».l Railroad, 1830-1865 41 

Slavery iunl Slave Trade, 1830-1850 4-2 

Maine Boumlary Contrt>versy, 178'i-184'2 ... 43 

Oregon Controversy, 17J)'2-1846 43 

Mountain Passes jmd Overland Routes, 1841-1850 44 

IV-sidential Ekvtion, 1844 44 

Presiilential EKvtion, 1848 44 

Mexican War. 1846-1848 (with Two Insets) . . 45 

Ti>st \\>te on the Compromise of 1850 .... 45 

Territorial Growth 46 

Principal Routes of Trade ;uid Migration. 1S41>-1S50 47 

Unites! States. September. 1850 48 

R&ilrvvid Lines in Actual Operation, October, 1860 4!> 
Texas Controversy juid Territorial Adjustment, 

1836-1850 50 

Central .Vmeriean and Isthmian Route, 1846-1860 50 

Vote on the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854 .... 51 

Civil War in Kansas. 1854-1856 51 

Party Situation Shown by Election of 1855 . . . 5-i 

President iid Election of 1856 oi 

Value of Manufactures ;uid Staple Agricultural 

Products 53 

Presidential Election of 1SI>0 54 

Uuittxl States, 18(50 55 

Distribution of Population. 1860 56 



^L\PS 

PAQB 

Scat of War in the West, 1861-1865 56 

Neighborhoo<i of Richmond 57 

Shenandoah Valley, 1861-1865 57 

Ccntnd Maryland and Peniusylvania, 1861-1865 58 

Seat of War in the East, 1861-1865 58 

Seat of AX'ar in the South, 1861-1865 59 

Georgia Campaign, 1863-1864 59 

Means of Transit. March 4, 1861 60 

Progress of Emancipation, 1850-1865 61 

Trunk Line Railway Systems, 1875 6-2 

Congressional Election of 1866, House of Represen- 
tatives 03 

Process of Reconstruction 63 

Distribution of Population, .1870 64 

.\laska Boundary Controversy. 1867-1903 ... 65 

Ekvtion of 1876 65 

Distribution of Population. 1880 (••; 

Presidential Election. 1884 ' ' 

Distribution of Population, 1890 i^ 

House Vote on McKinley Tariff Bill, 1890 ... 69 

Presiilential Election. 189^ 70 

House ^■ote on Wilson Tariff Bill, August 13, 1894 71 

Propose*! Isthmian Canal Routes. 1848-1884 (with 

Insets 7^ 

West Lidies and Mexico (with Insets) 73 

Philippines and Eastern Coast of Asia 74 

Distribution of Races, 1900 75 

Manufacturing Areas, 1900 76 

Presidential Election. 19H 77 

House Vote on I'nderwootl Tariff, 1913 .... 78 

Presidential Election, 1916 79 

Conservation and Reclamation, 1900-1917 ... 80 
Development of American Interests in the Pacific. 

1791-1903 8<J 

Caribbean Region, Showing Protectorates of the 

luiteil States, 1917 81 

Military Expeditions to 1917 8i 

Regional l^istributions of Prvnlucts in the United 

States Si 

The Western Front in the World Visa S3 

Western Railroads, 190t! 84 



FOREWORD 

IN historical study, even of an elementary sort, the map has ceased to be regarded 
as a luxury. Yet, as every teacher knows, maps which adequately show the 
progress of American life have been impossible to find in a cheap, convenient 
form. This unobtainable necessity has, therefore, been so ctften a subject of 
complaint that it is believed that this atlas will be welcomed with somewhat of 
relief. The one hundred and twenty-eight maps herein presented were prepared 
in consultation with a number of the leading scholars in the field of American 
history, and it seems doubtful if the benefits of complete and special information 
are likely to be more satisfactorily combined. 

An atlas is, of course, primarily a work of reference. Yet an orderly ar- 
rangement, as in a museum, may suggest the development of process or of life; 
and as a curator might carefully point out the illustrative value of such specimens 
and models, so here the editor has appended a short essay intended to suggest 
some ways in which the historical map may be of service. But he would be a 
sanguine teacher who expected students from these few reflections to realize for 
themselves the possibilities of an atlas. Consequently there is joined with it an 
extended course in the historical geography of the United States, in which the 
student, by observing these directions, works out on outline maps, easily procured, 
the record of a development in space as well as in tune, following the national 
history A\ith his hand as well as his eye. The studies are closely integrated 
with the atlas, by specific reference, so that it will seldom be necessary to look 
beyond its pages for essential facts. In many cases, however, additional informa- 
tion is included in the text, which the student is asked to transfer into graphic 
form. Citations to Professor Bassett's Short History of the United States, New 
York, 1913, and, for more elaborate treatment, to the American Nation Series, 
make the studies available as supplementary to a classroom course, or as a course 
in themselves, to be rounded out by lectures and library research. Naturally luap 
studies may be cut to meet the individual requirements, and, indeed, the book is 
so arranged that the atlas may be used alone without reference to Part II. 

There is one class of students, happily growing more numerous and important 
— those who study by themselves at home — whose needs have been constantly 
considered, and it is sincerely hoped that to many a solitary inquirer this book 
will bring a clearer luiderstauding of the history of the United States. 

Dixon Ryan Fox. 



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CONSERVATION AND 

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i^^B litidcrvoira 





MMIUUr ^WMVINt CO.. H'Y. 



S&owlng approximately tbe Producttre Areas of prliiclpal AgrlculturtLl and othu* Staples. 1913. 




REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES 




83 



MAP STUDIES 



LIST OF MAP STUDIES 



STUDY PAGE 

1. The Old World: Dissatisfaction 

with the Way to the Indies and 

the Way to Heaven 99 

2. The Discovery of America : A Strait- 

less Barrier 100 

3. The Land: "My Country, 'Tis of 

Thee" 103 

4. The Pathfinders: Spaniards and 

Frenchmen Penetrate the Wild- 
erness , 107 

5. The Tobacco Country : Virginia and 

Maryland 112 

6. New England : The Home of a Mari- 

time People 113 

7. The Dutch and Quaker Colonies: 

Great Grants and Small Farms 115 

8. The Southern Plantations: The 

Carolinas and Georgia .... 117 

9. Society and Commerce in the Young 

American Communities .... 119 

10. Latin or Saxon? The Hundred 

Years' War 122 

11. Americans for America : From Irri- 

tation to Independence .... 127 

12. The Revolutionary War .... 130 



STUDY PAGE 

13. Organizing a Nation: From Jeal- 

ousy to Confidence 131 

14. The New Government in Action . . 132 

15. Agrarianism and Expansion: At- 

tention Turning Toward the West 136 

16. The Second War of Independence 138 

17. The Settling of the Mississippi 

Valley 140 

18. Sectionalism: Economic Develop- 

ment of the East 143 

19. The Plantation Empire and the 

Anti-slavery Crusade 145 

20. Manifest Destiny: Settlement, Di- 

plomacy, and War Carry the 
Boundary to the Pacific , . . . 147 

21. Slavery and the Territories: From 

the Missouri Compromise to Se- 
cession 153 

22. The Civil War 155 

23. The Process of Reconstruction . . 156 

24. Creating Wealth: Mines, Ranches, 

Farms, Railroads, Mills .... 158 

25. Third Parties and Other Critics of 

"Big Business" 162 

26. World Power 164 

27. Reforms and Enterprise of the 

3^wentieth Century 167 



M 



HARPER'S ATLAS 
OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

AMERICAN HISTORY AND THE MAP 

**'^ ^ AN can no more be scientifically studied apart from the ground 
wliicli lie tills, or the lands over which he travels, or the sea over 
which he trades, than polar bear or desert cactus can be understood 
apart from its habitat, Man's relations to his environment are infinitely more 
numerous and complex than those of the most highly organized plant or animal. 
So complex are they that they constitute a legitimate and necessary object of 
special study. The investigation which they receive in anthropology, ethnology, 
sociology, and history, so far as history undertakes to explain the causes of 
events, fails to reach a satisfactory solution of their problem largely because 
the geographic factor which enters into them all has not been thoroughly ana- 
lyzed. Man has been so noisy about the way he has 'conquered Nature,' and 
Nature has been so silent in her persistent influence over men, that the geo- 
graphic factor in the equation of hmnan development has been overlooked."^ 
In these words the leading American exiDonent of the science of Anthropogeo- 
graphy lays down its dogma. 

The winning of this continent was less a conquest than an adaptation. The 
drama of man's effort has been conditioned to an important degree by the 
theater that he has played it in. Indeed, this is so clearly true that before the 
statement is completed it is branded commonplace ; no one will disagree except 
those poet-historians who sing of nothing but the genius of a people, or those 
transcendentalists who present all history as the biography of great men. But 
though the phrase is glibly spoken, it generally remains the wisdom of a phrase ; 
few there are who actually attempt to understand it by application in detail to 
the problems of history. Yet no one will come to knowledge of the growth and 
spread of the American nation from a few small shiploads of refugees and 
needy immigrants to a great society of scores of millions, without again and 
again referring to this factor. 

The small particulars of coast line and hill barrier, the even reaches of pla- 

lEUen Churchill Semple, Influence of Geographic Environment (New York, 1911), p. 2. 

89 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

teaus, the stretch of waterways, the forest wilderness and open prairie, the pos- 
sibilities of produce and of transportation — all these have helped or hindered, 
often quite determined, the course of growth. Without a constant sense of these 
hard and steady influences, one can never get a vivid picture of the frontier mov- 
ing westward mile by mile in a jagged, ever-changing line. Without it one can 
never understand the specializing of our economic life with its appropriate va- 
riety of social customs ; or those antipathies, almost inevitable, between Ameri- 
cans, who found themselves quite capable of self-support, and the English 
government, which looked for service to the Empire ; or those between our own 
eommimities, marked off into sections finally, after a great struggle, knit to- 
gether by the bonds of commerce. If one would share the thought of leaders in 
senate house, in military tent, or in the of&ce rooms of mills, he must know 
what could and what could not be done upon this continent. 

No one will get a reiDutation for originality by pointing out that sectionalism 
has been a very important factor in our history. The consciousness of differ- 
ence between one group and others, set off by walls of hills or by mere interven- 
ing distance, or distinguished no less certainly by some exclusive uniformity in 
type of thought and work, has been so marked as to endanger the Union time 
after time. In nearly every section in one decade or another up to 1876 the cen- 
tral government was defied because some special hopes or needs had not re- 
ceived enough consideration. To understand this it is very clear that the map, 
and often a detailed map, is indispensable. 

Take, for exami^le, the New England of a hundred years ago. The map 
of the geologist shows it to be a "united field," a rock-dust soil which yields 
good product if tilled vnth. unremitting labor. The contour map reveals a bar- 
rier ridge, the Litchfield and the Berkshire Hills, some sixty miles in breadth 
and about twelve hundred feet in height, supplemented at the north by a con- 
siderable lake, and giving a degree of isolation — enough to interfere with an 
internal trade, though not enough to hold back penetrating parties of home 
seekers trudging toward the West.^ The coastal survey shows a multitude of 
fiord harbors, from which men were dra^vn to sea almost as irresistibly as from 
Scandinavia. ' ' In New England the deeply embayed coasts, the narrowness of 
the lowland belt, and the glaciated soil were all geographic factors operating to 
develop maritime life."' A chart of ocean streams and winds makes clear the 
fortunate position of these ports near the median point in the American are 
of that great current which circles around the whole North Atlantic basin. 



1 The traveler U. B. Fearon (Sketches of America, London, 1818, p. 108) says: "Boston is not a thriving 
— i.e., an increasing — town; it wants a fertile back country and it is too far from the Western states to be 
engaged in the supply of that new and vast emporium, except, indeed, with inhabitants, a commodity which, 
I am informed, they send in numbers greater than from any other quarter." 

»E. C. Semple, American History and Its Geographic Conditions (Boston, 1903), p. 120. 

90 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF, AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Puritan faced out from his hill fence at the west through the front doors 
of his harbors. Here was a people of a common stock transplanted whole as 
a community, self-reliant in its temper, and penetrated with a sense of mission. 
Its spiritual aloofness, which had not passed away in 1815, had been confirmed 
and long sustained by the character of its homeland. It seemed an ethnographic 
unit on a geographic unit — the circumstances of a nation — with a full equip- 
ment of the self-satisfaction which all nations have. In the first years of the 
nineteenth century this people faced away from the west toward England, just 
as for a dozen years after the Eevolution the pioneers of Tennessee had faced 
away from the east toward Spain beckoning from the Gulf of Mexico. The 
"Essex Junto" and the defiant citizens of Franklin are equally accounted for 
in part by the configuration of the earth's crust. 

Examining the map with greater care, we note the continuity of the Con- 
necticut Valley and, by reference to statistics of elections, observe here a com- 
munity stretching from the Sound to Dartmouth College, preserving the men- 
tal state of the eighteenth century. The people to whom this was distasteful 
moved over the hills and far away, to the satisfaction of the orthodox ; the 
New-Englandism of the coastal towns was softened by commercial contact with 
the world ; but the Connecticut Valley folk, cut off in their complacency, long 
went their old, tried, customary way. The district of Maine, on the other hand, 
because it was a frontier region, its people bitter toward their urban creditors, 
discovered a restless spirit, sent Democratic members up to Boston and so 
clamored for home rule that Boston and the Valley were glad to see it go in 
1820. That there were other well-marked sections in this general area, like the 
interior counties of New Hampshire, or the sterile plains and bogs of southeast- 
ern Massachusetts, is strikingly illustrated in the maps of Doctor Libby, in- 
cluded in this book, on the vote for and against the Federal Constitution, or in 
the tables of votes recorded in modern monographic studies of New England 
history.^ 

By tracing in the "faU line,'" where the tumbling rivers from the mountains 
make their final plunge before their short glide to the sea, one notices the fortu- 
nate proximity of power to the highway of the ships, making manufacturing 
doubly profitable through facilities of distribution. After reading an account 
of the industrial expansion of a century ago, a dozen dots placed properly here 
and there along the line, vividly record the growth of mill towns. Even little 
Rhode Island, scarcely more extensive than the average county of its larger 
neighbors, had both waterfalls and harbors within its close constricted borders. 

1 See, e.g., R. S. Purcell, Connecticut in Transition (Washington, 1918), pp. 97, 349, 412; A. E. Morse, The 
Federalist Party to the Year 1800 (Princeton, 1909), p. 179; W. A. Eobinson, Jeffersonian Democracy in New 
England (New Haven, 1916), pp. 162-165; S.B.Harding, Massachusetts and the Federal Constitution (New 
York, 1896) ; F. G. Bates, Rhode Island and the Formation of the Union (New York, 1898). 

91 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Indeed, sometimes, as in Pawtucket, ships and water wheels were found within 
the confines of a single town. The harnessing of power. New England's in- 
evitable answer to the embargo, seemed another count toward self-sufficiency 
to the men of 1815 ; but they misunderstood its tendency. Through their house- 
hold industries supplemented by their English trade, they had before been 
largely independent; the new release of energy in the mills forced them into 
contact with the lands beyond the Hudson. A glance at a ''wool map" would 
make clear how necessary now was connection, by the long canals, with western 
New York and, afterward, Ohio, whose flocks produced the fleece that the East- 
ern looms could turn to gold. And more important was the new relation mth 
the cotton kingdom, whose fleets plied back and forth between New Orleans and 
Boston. As industry diversified, a growing consciousness of poverty in min- 
eral resources also must have chastened any heady craving for a life apart. By 
manufacturing, as easily can be traced out on a map. New England had been 
emancipated from itself. 

Everywhere throughout the country there have flourished these sectional 
antipathies, impossible to understand without the map, whether we turn to 
the east and west of the old South, or north and south in the old Northwest, or to 
any other state or part. The spirit has been felt in the far West, for "during 
the progress of the Civil War there were frequent rimiors that the people of the 
isolated Pacific slope, who had for ten years in vain demanded overland com- 
munication, intended erecting an independent republic.'" It was the railroad, 
the bonds of steel, that finally made sectionalism no longer really dangerous to 
American imity. 

Turnpikes, canals, and railroads shrimk the earth and drew its people into 
contact, making possible and easy the exchange of things and thoughts. Since 
culture grows with imitating new and better ways, the American life, broad- 
ened and enriched by this communication, was leveled upward by the mutual 
aid of the sturdy individualism of the Western pioneer, the habit of social and 
economic organization in the East, and the dignified tradition of public service 
in the South. Doubtless each patriot in the early nineteenth century thought 
that sectionalism was a curse upon his country and mourned because the other 
sections willfully refused to grow like his. Where an institution such as slavery 
was of great vitality and yet utterly incompatible with the settled modes of liv- 
ing in the other areas, the result, it is too true, was tragic, especially when one 
reflects that African slavery was the easiest, but not the only possible, solution 
of the problems of production in the South. But, with this exception, the di- 
versity of culture caused or aided by geographic difference has been beneficial. 
And modern communication has fortunately not obliterated the peculiarities 
of sections. 

IE. E. Sparks, The Expansion of the American People (Cliicago, 1900), p. 368. 

92 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

Despite the sectional animosities whicli have raged in times now fortunately 
past, the land seems formed for a great and a imited people. No Italic or Iber- 
ian peninsula here presents the proper basis for a separate stock. The Chesa- 
peake and Delaware Bays lead gently into, but certainly do not divide, our 
coimtry as they might were they of such proportions as the Red or Baltic Seas. 
The pious John Jay out of this conviction wrote a paragraph in the second 
paper of the Federalist : "This country and this people seem to have been made 
for each other, and it appears as if it was the design of Providence that an in- 
heritance so proper and convenient for a band of brethren, united to one an- 
other by the strongest ties, should never be split into a number of unsocial, jeal- 
ous, and alien sovereignties.'- The German geographer Karl Ritter once re- 
marked that the mountain ranges which sever people in Eurasia run along 
parallels of latitude, making homogeneous and comparatively undiversified so- 
cieties. But in America, where they run along meridians, "they unite and min- 
gle peoples of different climates, and hint at the development of a national life 
of far greater richness and variety than the Old World can show."^ It is this 
integrity of territory made up of many parts — E phiribus unum — with its un- 
escapable suggestion of destiny, which has been the theme of many a sublime 
oration, from those of Webster down. 

It may seem that American society wiU soon become quite homogeneous. 
The stream of immigration from across the sea, which, notwithstanding eddies 
in the port towns, really does diverge throughout the land, carries strangers 
everywhere. The ease of change in residence to meet new opportunities for the 
individual encourages an unprecedented moving here and there. But sooner 
or later, it may be assiuned, with the more even development of the country, this 
kaleidoscopic whirl will come to rest and population reach, more or less, an 
equipoise. Then we will have to study our majps again in the same old way, 
for sectionalism, though of a kind mild and advantageous to the whole, must 
be the result of geographical sections. He who would understand America of 
the twentieth century, as he who studies that of the nineteenth, must learn of 
her climates and her soils, and, probably, despite the airplane, her highways 
on the railroad levels and the navigable rivers. 

Though the geography and the history of the United States are learned 
along with decimals and the rules of grammar in the elementary school, too 
often the knowledge of these subjects remains as insulated in the two sealed 
compartments of the mind. Yet in maturer years, a review, however hasty, 
shows clearly their connection and how necessary is the former to an under- 
standing of the latter. The map that would illustrate the interests of colonial 
New England must include the fishing banks of Newfoundland, the islands of 

lE. E. Thompson, The Band of God, in American History (New York, 1902), p. 7. 

93 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

the Caribbean, the Guinea coast of Africa, and the British ports, as properly as 
the stern and rockbound coast, on which, the poetess has told us, the breaking 
waves dashed high. When one has traced out how food produce went from 
Massachusetts to the specialized plantations of the Antilles, there making pos- 
sible the staple cargoes to the English mills, which in their turn sent finished 
goods back across three thousand miles of sea to Boston, one contemplates a 
great triangle of trade. Later, it is observed, this three-cornered commerce 
was transferred westward to the continent itself. The farmers of the old 
Northwest sent raft-loads of cereals and pork and beef down the Mississippi to 
the lower South to sustain the toilers who produced the cotton for the spindles 
by the Merrimac, whence came the calicoes, which, slowly freighted by wagon 
and canal boat, were finally to clothe the mistresses of Indiana cabins. This 
diagram upon an outline map reveals one reason for the indifference to the 
wrongs of slavery prevalent in sections of the northern part of the Ohio Val- 
ley, a sentiment somewhat reformed when railroads gave the West a direct 
market in the Eastern towns, with possibilities of exportation. 

The graphic record of migration will clearly show that the configuration of 
the land, and not the man-made boundaries of states, is what marks out the areas 
of settlement — why upper Illinois belongs in taste and tradition more with 
Wisconsin than with "Egypt," caught between the rivers in the southern part 
of that same commonwealth ; and why Cattaraugus and Chautauqua Counties in 
New York are culturally one with Erie, Crawford, Warren, and McKean across 
the Pennsylvania line. It demonstrates why the valley walled in by the ridges 
of the Appalachians, rising steadily to a plateau as one journeys southward 
from the Monongahela,^ was settled through its length by Germans and Scotch- 
Irish, who, untouched by loyalties to governments seated near the coast of their 
respective provinces, became a force for nationalism. 

The comparison of areas shaded to set forth the tariff votes throughout 
the nineteenth century, with those which show the distribution of extractive 
industry that could not well be satisfied with a home market, requires no com- 
mentary, nor does that of maps which locate silver mines with those which give 
the districts which supi)orted Mr. Bryan. Then, too, the location of one's home 
is oftentimes an index as well as a conditioning influence. At a meeting of the 
American Historical Association in 1917, Prof. F. J. Turner displayed some 
maps designed to show how in the old Northwest the line marking the extent of 
the glacier, which throughout its breadth enriched the soil with silt, likewise 
was the boundary of a higher grade of literacy. The kind of men who lacked 
the "push" to move out of the barren area beyond the line had not the enter- 
prise to learn to read and write. 

1 C. H. Merriam, Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States, U. S. Dept. of Agricultore, Div. of Bio- 
logical Survey, Bulletin No. 10, pp. 20-24, 30-36. 

94 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

The student, with a map before him, marks how the French, lured on by 
easy water reaches, scattered their settlement to an exhausting thinness, while 
the English were checked by obstacles of earth and man. He notices that the 
valley of the Genesee remained a wilderness until, with Sullivan's raid, the 
Iroquois were crushed. He sees the settlements to the south were, as a whole, 
held back by the Alleghany ridges, which, though not high, presented a broad 
and shaggy barrier to set a bovmd to any hasty spread until the coastal colonies, 
growing strong by reason of their fertile soil and well-indented coast, could 
serve securely as a base. From a military point of view the French with their 
communication routes and, in the later phase, interior lines, were better 
placed, but the numbers from the close-comi^acted English settlements finally 
overwhelmed them. It is true, then, that "Nature has persistently influenced 
the course of man's development." 

So numerous and so striking are the examples of this influence that one who 
reads, with long and serious attention to the map, the narrative of man's 
achievement, is likely to conclude that human history, like ecology, is a science 
which concerns itself only with how environment conditions life growth. 
There have been earnest essays to i^rove that all civilization is a geographic 
fact — "Der mensch ist was er isst" — that all the hopes and fears of history are 
but phases of the stern struggle for existence upon the lands and waters of the 
earth. Some historians, like Henry Thomas Buckle, have maintained that 
man's physical surroundings have determined his major motives not only 
through his economic life, but in what we call aesthetic, intellectual, and relig- 
ious interests as well — that the stormy climates make one superstitious, and 
smiling skies and placid hills hearten man to poetry. "In India, man was in- 
timidated; in Greece, he was encouraged."^ 

" The mountains made men free, " writes Buckle. But the answer comes 
that those who would be free fled to the mountains. "It may be," remarks 
Professor Adams," "that when England has become a memory and Holland a 
myth, the advocate of geographic environment will find in the rocks and in the 
chilling mists of New England the forces that created the Puritan conscience 
and dwarfed his emotion." There is danger, then, that too much contempla- 
tion of the map may lead to a one-sided "interpretation" of history, if it is 
not balanced with some common sense. The Rev. H. B. George, a brilliant 
student of the subject,^ remarks by way of illustration : "It has been said that 



1 H. T. Buckle, Eistory of Civilization in England (New York, 1884), vol. i, p. 100. The influence of geo- 
graphic environment over character is discussed in pp. 86-108. Other scholars have written to show that such 
gently rolling country as that of Suabia and Thuringia produces artists, wliereas the grandeur of the Alps seema 
to overpower and stunt the imagination to a degree that the Swiss make little contribution to the arts; see 
Heinrich von Treitschke, Politik (Leipzig, 1897), vol. i, p. 22.5. 

2E. T>. Adams, The Power of Ideals in American History (New Haven, 1912), p. x. 

3 H. B. George, The Belations of Geography and History (Oxford, 1919), p. 14. 

95 



HAEPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

the long political predominance of feudal aristocracy was only possible in 
fairly level countries. This is so far true that their military strength could 
only be effectively exerted in regions fit for mailed horsemen to fight in. It 
would, however, be preposterous to attribute the origin of feudalism to the in- 
fluence of the plains. One has never heard that the Mongols, who were all 
horsemen and came off the boundless steppes, developed any feudal ideas, or 
even the less barbarous Cossacks of later ages." " Circiunstances, " says an- 
other English scholar, "can unmake, but of themselves they never yet made 
man, or any other form of life."^ 

Despite this caution it remains true that man cannot *'be scientifically 
studied apart from the ground which he tills, or the lands over which he travels, 
or the seas over which he trades. ' ' But this philosophical reason is not the only 
one for setting the atlas side by side with the historical narrative. Even if one 
thought as little of environment as Carlyle or Emerson, a careful study would 
still be indispensable. Human influences, too, can be indicated on a map. Cer- 
tain lines of the Undergroimd Railroad are seen to have run near Quaker Set- 
tlements, votes for liberty and union in the crisis of 1860 are recorded to the 
credit of the German immigrants in Missouri and Illinois. The geographical 
distribution of the New England conscience had something to do with the 
spread of anti-masonry and the abolition movement. 

Neither can the action of men be traced if one refuses to learn where they 
acted. To understand the story of a war or peaceful progress, one must know 
place names and have a fairly accurate sense of distances. Unless one can 
picture with precision the political boundaries of colonies and states, and the 
location of rivers, bays, forts, and towns, the reading of history is the mere 
miunbliug of words. Est locus in rchus. When in reading of the old South the 
student finds a reference to the people of the piney woods of Alabama, he 
misses some of the significance if he thinks that they were mountaineers. He 
may become confused, in studying the expansion toward the West, if he thinks 
that the Cumberland Road was built through Cumberland Gap. He will be 
puzzled as he reads of the exploits of Gen. Zackary Taylor and Commodore 
Sloat, unless he knows that there were two towns in Mexico named Monterey. 
He is apt to be misled in following Grant's campaigns, if he suj^poses Pitts- 
burg Landing to be in southwestern Pennsylvania. Historical facts are local- 
ized facts, and precision in this respect is especially essential in American his- 
tory, which is so much an evolution in space as well as time. 

In Mark Twain's tale of the adventures of Tom Sawyer Abroad, the hero 
and the faithful Huckleberry Finn are represented steering eastward from 
the Mississippi in an airship. After sailing several hours they fall into a fierce 

1 E. E. Marrett, Anthropology, p, 129. 

96 



HARPEK'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

contention as to the state that they are passing over. Finn believes that by 
this time they must have reached at least to Indiana, but his companion, with 
pity for this ignorance, retorts that they cannot yet be past the boundary of 
Illinois, for, as they look down, do they not see a stretching space of green? 
And in the map book they have studied is this not the color which marks the 
state of Illinois ? Many students look upon a map in a fashion scarcely less 
absurd. When this type of student reads that Lincoln moved in 1830 from 
Indiana into Illinois, he merely draws a line an inch long from a yellow state 
into a green one, without the slightest effort in imagination to visualize the lit- 
tle family trudging beside their wagon on the narrow, sloughy pathway lead- 
ing through the forest from one clearing to another. 

Something may be said for the old maps which pictured ships, sea serpents, 
bears, woods, and houses, for they prodded up the laggard fancy to some con- 
ception of the regions that they indicated. The map to have a meaning must 
be regarded as a symbol. When the student, dramng in a line to mark the route 
of Daniel Boone, comes to the pass through the Alleghanies, he must be forcibly 
reminded of that important day in the history of America when this resolute 
pioneer looked out upon a billowy sea of tree tops, with the same thrill at scan- 
ning boundless space that must have stirred the soul of Balboa on the peak of 
Darien. "I had gained the smiunit of a commanding ridge, and, looking 
round with astonishing delight, beheld the ample plains, the beauteous tracts 
below." As later with his pencil he follows Lewis and Clark, or Captain Pike, 
or the dashing Colonel Fremont, he will likewise come to feel something of 
what American history has meant — if he has the type of mind to which a map 
can mean more than black lines printed on white paper. 

The student often looks upon map study as the dryest kind of drudgery, 
wasting time which might be better used. And if map study is to degenerate, 
as it too frequently does, into the mere slavish copying of meaningless lines 
and colors from an atlas, such a viewpoint is in large measure justified. But 
that lies with the student himself. Certainly the course of studies which ac- 
companies these maps is planned to serve a wider purpose. From time to time 
comments are included as suggestons in interpretation or to introduce related 
reading, and opportunity is often given to set down in graphic form the state- 
ments of the printed page, sometimes from the text and sometimes from other 
accessible books or from extracts reprinted with the map directions. General- 
ly these directions are intended to give a sense of sequence so that the student 
may more truly seem to illustrate a process, to show how this land comes into 
history, and how that. In short, the maps may prove a kind of laboratory 
where the student may himself discover and indicate the forces which have in- 
terplayed to make this nation. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 

THERE is one general direction of the first importance : The fullest 
AND MOST INTELLIGIBLE ILLUSTBATIVE MAP IS DESIRED IN EACH STUDY. 
Do not content yourself with doing the things specifically directed. 

The student is to provide himself with outline maps on which all data are to 
be presented. Care and thought will be necessary to make the maps not only 
satisfactory aethetically, but to make them intelligible illustrations as well; 
when the scale of the map is considered, the wandering of a quarter of an inch 
may mean an error of fifty miles or more, which sometimes is important. The 
student is advised to use inks of different colors whenever possible, or at least 
to keep his colored pencils very sharp. An advantage of using ink lining or 
water color for an area is that single lines to show a route or boundary may be 
laid across them, which is not true when the masses are laid in with wax pen- 
cils. The good taste of the student must be relied upon in the placing of his 
color values. Satisfactory results may often be obtained by careful cross- 
hatching and with lines of different character. Lettering should always be 
done in neat, plain print, and, as often as possible, imposed upon the map itself, 
though when this might seem to produce confusion a key sheet may be pinned 
or pasted to the map. 

It wiU be found desirable always to read through the directions before be- 
ginning, so that devices may be hit upon to take care of overlapping areas 
before it is too late. 



MAP STUDY No. 1 

THE OLD WORLD: DISSATISFACTION WITH THE WAY TO THE 
INDIES AND THE WAY TO HEAVEN 

Text : Cheyney, European Background of American History, chaps, i-iii ; Hayes, History of Modern 
Europe, vol. i, pp. 27-28, 43-49 ; Bassett, pp. 24, 26-27. 

Maps : Asia and Europe. 



THE Way to the Indies. — The principal eco- 
nomic cause of the Commercial Revolution 
was the desire of the nations of Western Europe to 
share in the trade of the Orient by finding new 
routes to the lands of spices, sillts, and gold. Long 
before, the Crusades had introduced these riches 
and refinements to the knowledge of the northern 
barons, and a taste thus formed had grown until 
they were considered indispensable. More and 
more merchants were involved in the trade as the 
years went on, and as the towns grew in si2e and 
number concern as to the cheapness and safety of 
the trade routes naturally grew as well. This map 
study is devised to show those lines of contact 
and thereby to explain the great explorations that 
come after. 

After reading the assignment in the text, in- 
dicate on the outline map the chief localities in, 
which the commodities of the Eastern trade were 
produced, denoting each commodity by an initial 
explained in an accompanying key sheet. Trace 
the route of Marco Polo's journey, begun in 1271 
at Ormuz (Map 1) and leading through Balkh, 
then the famous center of the Zoroastrian religion, 
to the oasis of Tarkand, whose horses were in great 
demand, and thence, through the passes and 
around the deserts, over the long way to Cambaluc 
(Peking). Show his return through Quinsay (now 
known as Hangchow-Fu), which, impressed with 
its twelve thousand bridges and three thousand 
baths, he described as the finest and noblest city 
in the world ; then overland to Zayton (the mod- 
ern Tsuan-chau), whose glossy silk, by a corrup- 
tion of the city's name, was known to Western 
trade as "satin." Then, sailing near the coast of 



90 



Hainan, Indo-China, and the Malay Peninsula, 
he reached Malacca, beyond which Chinese traders 
seldom ventured. In these ancient towns of Peking, 
Quinsay, and Zayton, for a time the Mohammedan 
traders had their agencies, and, due in part to the 
enterprise of missionary priests, likewise the 
Italian. But about the middle of the fourteenth 
century, as far as Europe was concerned, "night 
descended upon the farther East, covering Cathay, 
with those cities of which the old travelers had 
told such marvels. ' ' The great importance of Marco 
Polo's book was that it kept before the minds of 
scholarly priests and navigators the memory that 
far, far to the east was a land of fabulous riches 
and teeming population. Out of that mysterious 
country, of course, there continued to come bales 
of silks and herbs, and trinkets wrought with in- 
credible cunning, but the Westerners who read 
old books could not but reflect that if some easier 
road could be discovered, relations could be closer, 
exchange much more convenient, and the cause 
of God and man would be well served. 

Show (1) two possible routes by caravan and 
ship from Yarkand to Constantinople; (2) the 
route of a cargo of nutmegs, mace, and cloves from 
the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, to Venice, picking 
up rare woods in Farther India, cinnamon at 
Ceylon, pepper on the Malabar Coast, aloes and 
ambergris at Socotra, and emeralds at Berenice 
(where the goods were carried overland from the 
Red Sea to the Nile) ; (3) the route of packets of 
jewels from Pulicat and Calicut to Antioch, locat- 
ing the principal markets touched. Show the posi- 
tion in Central India of the kingdom of Golconda, 
then the great diamond center of the world. Locate 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



four leading Italian commercial towns, and, with 
the help of a map of Europe, the route from Ven- 
ice via Augsburg and Nuremburg to Hamburg and 
Antwerp, and from Genoa along the Riviera to 
the Rhone and up to Paris. The annual Venetian 
fleet should be traced to Lisbon, the Seine, London, 
the Netherlands, and the Hansa towns in northern 
Germany. 

The student will notice the advantageous posi- 
tion of the Italian cities, as the trading centers for 
Europe. They had their agencies or fondachi in 
most towns of the Levant. Venice, in liOO, had 
virtual control of Tyre, Sidon, Acre, Crete, Sal- 
oniki, the ports of Thessaly, seven towns on the 
Morean peninsula, Corfu, the Cyclades, and the 
Sporades. Genoa was her greatest rival and at one 
time drove her from the Black Sea, where Genoese 
influence was very powerful in towns like Tre- 
bizond and Kaffa (now Theodosia). Provengal 
and Spanish cities were also represented in the 
bazaars of the Levant. Locate seven towns in this 
region which were important about the middle of 
the fifteenth century. 

An explanation frequently advanced for the 
decline of the older trading towns of southern 



Europe after the Commercial RcTolution is that 
their commerce with the Orient was strangled by 
the Turkish occupation of the old trade routes. 
Indicate (from Map 2) the dates at which the old 
Levantine markets fell into the hands of Ottoman 
Turlcs and compare with the dates of the voyages 
of the Portuguese navigators and Columbus. Did 
the Turkish conquests of themselves cause the 
Commercial Revolution ? Do you think that they 
accelerated it ? What part do you think the factors 
of time and expense involved in the old routes 
had in urging it forward ? 

The Way to Heaven. — Since differences in relig- 
ion played so important a part in driving people to 
the New "World, indicate on your outline, with the 
help of the map in Hayes, Vol. I, page 164, the 
Catholic and the Protestant countries to Europe 
in the latter part of the sixteenth century. It 
might be observed that at the time America was 
discovered the center of commercial and political 
affairs was shifting from the Mediterranean towns 
to the Atlantic coast, where the new national 
states, England, France, Spain, and Portugal, 
were growing more and more important. 



MAP STUDY No. 2. 

THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA: A STRAITLESS BARRIER 

Text: Bassett, pp. 25-36; Cheyney, European Background, chaps, iv-v; Bourne, Spain in America, 

chaps, i-ix. 
Map : The World. 



IT is the purpose of this map study to illus- 
trate that mighty expansive movement which, 
by hazarding the terrors of uncharted seas, 
broadened European history into world history 
and brought into the view of Christendom two 
enormous continents full of wealth and wonders. 
There is no better way to realize the significance 
of this Commercial Revolution than by comparing 
the world that Europe knew when Columbus was 
bom with that we know to-day. After reading 



the assignment in the text, draw a red boundary 
line to indicate the Imown world of the middle of 
the fifteenth century. 

A. The Portuguese. Why should Portugal 
rather than Spain have undertaken, early in the 
fifteenth century, the task of discovering a new 
trade route to the East by sailing south around 
Africa ? Trained and inspired in the famous col- 
lege of mathematics at Cape Sagres under Princ* 



100 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Henry the Navigator, Portuguese captains found 
and charted the successive promontories of the 
western coast of the ' ' Dark Continent. ' ' To mark 
their slow, laborious progress, indicate (maps 4a 
and 6), mth dates, the Canary Islands, Cape Boja- 
dor, Cape Verde, the Congo River, and Cape Pa- 
drano. Trace, indicating date, the royal expedi- 
tion under Bartholomew Diaz along the coast to 
Algoa Bay and, on the return, past the Cape of 
Storms and Torments, later called Good Hope; 
that under Vasco da Gama directly from the Cape 
Verde Islands around this cape to Natal Bay, 
the mouth of the Zambesi, Mozambique, and thence 
to Melinde, about a thousand miles farther up the 
coast, where he fell in with merchants from India, 
whose pilot guided him to Calicut. Here at Melin- 
de, in 1498, Europe and the Orient met by sea. 
The Portuguese, despite the opposition of Moham- 
medan traders, set up trading stations along the 
coasts of the Indian Ocean. By 1509 they had 
reached Malacca ; by 1525, the Spice Islands ; and 
by 1542, Cipangu, or Japan. Pedro Alvarez Cabral 
in the spring of 1500, leading out from the Cape 
Verde Islands another expedition for the Portu- 
guese crown, tried to follow da Gama's route ; but, 
venturing too far west, he was blown along the 
Brazilian coast to a point which may be located 
at about 39° west longitude by 16° south latitude 
and, before striking out for the Cape of Good 
Hope, formally took possession of the land for his 
sovereign. Show also the coast charted by Caspar 
Cortereal. 

In using Mercator's Projection, the most com- 
mon world map, it is well to remember that while 
the relative positions of the earth's features are 
here correctlj' indicated, the areas are necessarily 
distorted and appear all out of proportion. In 
fact, the geographer says, in his haste, ' ' all maps 
are liars"; a globe is the only reliable guide, 
though in our study its employment would be most 
inconvenient. Greenland is not, as Mercator pre- 
sents it, larger than the continent of South Amer- 
ica, but rather stands in ratio of about one to ten. 
Contrary to our first impression, Brazil is in real- 
ity considerably larger than the United States. 

B. Columbus. Meanwhile, Columbus, under 



the patronage of Queen Isabella, was setting forth 
in exactly the opposite direction, hoping to reach 
the Indies by sailing westward. The reason why 
the enterprise did not seem to him too discourag- 
ing will appear when the sudent has drawn an 
oval about an inch in length which would overlap 
the western part of Mexico and labeled it "Cip- 
angu, ' ' for about here it was thought to be, as in- 
dicated on the globe finished by Martin Behaim in 
Nuremburg about the time Columbus sailed. Show 
his first and third voyages, and with a heavy line 
the coast he explored on the third and fourth, 
giving dates (as is required in all indications in 
this map study). Beside the line of Columbus's 
first outward voyage place an arrow pointing to- 
ward the southwest, representing the trade winds, 
and beside that of his return place an arrow point- 
ing toward Spain to show the prevailing wester- 
lies. A record is now made of the good fortune of 
the discoverer. In those days of crude instruments 
of navigation, it was the custom to find the parallel 
of latitude of the destination and then sail as 
nearly as possible along that line. So Columbus 
sailed to the Canaries to take up his course at 
about the twenty-seventh parallel, on which, 
through an error of Toscanelli and other carto- 
graphers, was supposed to lie the northern point 
of Cipangu, the outpost of the Orient. The trade 
winds in this latitude so favored him that he dared 
not share with his men the Imowledge of his fear- 
ful progress, and made a practice of reporting 
each day less than the actual distance sailed. The 
vagary midway is thiLS explained in his journal : 
"He sailed this day toward the West a quarter 
northwest . . . becaiise of the veering winds and 
calm that prevailed." He was glad to experience 
a west wind on the 22d of September, that he 
might convince his crew that a homeward voyage 
would not be impossible. Following the general 
custom, on the return ^^ ^K.zglJ. *^"^ i-"~c^lf-l '>f 
southern Spain, on w'lich, by more good fortune, 
he fell in with the westerlies, and then made a 
swift and easy journey. Later, when these phe- 
nomena were widely known, their importance 
was so well recognized that many voyages, even 
Irom England, to the continental colonies were 
made by way of the West Indies. 



101 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AAIERICAN HISTORY 



Indicate the coast explored in 1499 by Hojeda 
■with Amerigo Vespucci on board. Of course, it 
was realized that even though Columbus's first 
landfall might be within the Indies, a land so large 
as to contain the Orinoco River must be a "new 
world, ' ' as there was no such area so far south in 
the known East. Waldseemiiller's geography of 
1507 placed the word "America" at about the 
latitude of modern Paraguay. The names "North" 
and "South America" were not in general use 
until after 1600. Using the map of the world 
drawn by Johan Schoner in 1523 (Map 4a), trace 
the voyage of Magellan's ship completed the year 
before, and draw the line of demarcation as cor- 
rected from the line of Pope Alexander VI (1493) 
by the Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and 
Portugal in 1494, the "Linea divisionis Castel- 
lanoru e Portugalleii" (see also Map 3). To which 
part of the earth was the line intended to apply ? 
This line with Cabral's discovery helps to explain 
why Portuguese is to-day the language of Brazil. 
It also accounts for the absence of the Spanish 
in the development of the route around Africa. 
What also deterred Spain? Why and how was 
Portugal largely superseded in the Bast Indies? 

C. The English. The northern national states, 
too, were to share in this activity. Inasmuch as 
routes were considered as a species of property 
and thought to carry with them a sort of juris- 
diction and monopoly, it was to be expected that 
the merchants of France, England, and the United 
Netherlands would desire to find ways of their 
own to the Indies, and that the northern sovereigns 
would desire to rival Their Majesties of Spain and 
Portugal in the glory of overseas dominion. The 
epoch-making exploration of the Cabots, dis- 
patched by Bristol merchants with the favor of 
Henry VII, should be indicated, and also Fro- 
b'::h:r T^.V o.nr' Ea.io Sf i*, reached, respectively, 
in 1576 and 1585 by Sir j '"artin Frobisher and 
Capt. John Davis, both seai' 'ng for a northwest 
passage to Cathay. These m .. be found on any 
modern map of North America. J n this quest Eng- 
lishmen made several other notable attempts. In 
1610 and 1611 Henry Hudson skirted the south- 
east coast of Greenland and then sailed across 



through Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay to James 
Bay, where he met his death ; in 1616 William 
BafiSn, in his little ship the Discovery, penetrated 
to a point 77 ° 45' in the great bay that bears his 
name, thereby establishing a "farthest north" in 
those seas unsurpassed till 1852. His report dis- 
couraged further attempts in that direction. 

Not finding a route or riches for themselves, the 
English sailors preyed upon the Spaniards, the 
two nations being most of the time in a state of 
quasi-war. The first circumnavigation by the 
English was made by one of those privateers. Sir 
Francis Drake. He had twice harried the coasts 
of the Spanish Main — that is, roughly spealdng, 
the American land and waters within the tropics, 
and from the top of a tree on the Isthmus of Pana- 
ma had, in 1572, surveyed the Pacific. Arri\Tng 
home, he fitted out an expedition of five ships and 
166 men and set out to explore this great ocean 
and incidentally enrich himself by plunder on the 
way. His route may be traced by way of the 
Moroccan coast, the Cape Verde Islands, the coast 
of Brazil to the Rio de la Plata, the Straits of 
Magellan, Mocha Island (off Chile), Panama, and 
then along the American coast to 38° north lati- 
tude, where he landed, and in the name of the 
queen called the country Nova Albion. He was 
disappointed that he had found no strait through 
to the Caribbean Sea. He now bore away for 
fourteen weeks to the Jloluccas, where cloves and 
other spices were received as gifts, and, having 
touched at Java, he started for home. About twelve 
weeks later he doubled the Cape of Good Hope and 
set sail to the north, stopping for proA-isions at 
Sien-a Leone (Map 4b), and arrived in England, 
September 26, 1580, after nearly three years' ab- 
sence, ' ' very richly fraught with gold, silver, silk, 
pearls, and precious stones." 

D. France. Francis I of France, impressed 
with the fortune of his rival, Charles V, the king 
of Spain, set out also to gain new routes and a 
commercial empire. Giovanni da Verrazano, a 
Florentine in his employ, in 1524 was the first to 
strike straight across to what is now the United 
States, avoiding the Spanish Main to the south and 
the ice-strewn seas to the north. Though ill-re- 



102 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



corded, his route may be traced with fair assur- 
ance from France to Cape Fear (Map 7b), south to 
the site of Savanah (Map lib), thence north to 
New York harbor, exploring the New England 
coast from Rhode Island to Maine, home to 
Europe. There is certainly no doubt as to the two 
voyages of Jacques Cartier, ten years later, which 
may be shown as from France to the coast of New- 
foundland, already known to fishermen, through 
the Straits of Belle Isle to Gaspe Bay and the 
island of Anticosti and home ; and, in 1535, up the 
St. Lawrence to the Indian town of Hochelega 
(Montreal). That the hope of reaching China long 
survived Cartier is recorded in the name La Chine 
derisively bestowed much later on the near-by 
rapids. He made two more voyages to this region, 
but, though a settlement was attempted, bitter 
religious wars at home postponed further ventures 
by the French until the time of Henry IV. 

E. The Northeast Passage and the Dutch. But 
the northwest passage was not the only short way 
to the Orient that Europeans of the sixteenth 
century believed might be discovered. In 1553 
Sebastian Cabot and others promoted a voyage to 
search for a water route to the Indies beyond 
North Cape. In that year Sir High "Willoughby 
and Robert Chancellor set out to seek this north- 
east passage, and the latter, having succeeded in 
reaching the site of Archangel, penetrated over- 
land, along a route familiar to the Norwegians, to 
Moscow, thereby establishing, for the first time, 
trade relations between Russia and the west. As 



the student indicates this route he may mark the 
region as the sphere of the famous Muscovy Com- 
pany. The directors of this corporation, stiU de- 
sirous of the passage, sent Henry Hudson on two 
voyages of Arctic exploration, in 1607 and 1608, 
the second especially to find a good sea route to 
Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla. His failure brought 
an end to such investigations by the company, but 
the Dutch, who for nearly twenty years had been 
exploring these frozen seas with a similar purpose, 
now engaged this navigator to carry forward the 
search in their behalf. In the employ of the Dutch 
East India Company he set out in 1609. Dis- 
heartened at the prospect of a voyage in that fear- 
ful climate, his crew of eighteen or twenty men 
mutinied before they reached North Cape and 
forced him to abandon his plan, though they ac- 
cepted his new proposition to seek a northwest 
passage along the American coast at about the 
40th parallel of latitude. "This idea," states a 
contemporary writer, "had been suggested to 
Hudson by some letters and maps which his friend 
Captain Smith had sent him from Virginia. ' ' The 
route of the Half Moon may thus be traced from 
the Texel, an island off the Netherlands, to New- 
foundland, Penobscot Bay, Cape Cod, Delaware 
Bay (which he later called the "South River"), 
and, on September 4th, at the mouth of the ' ' Great 
North River of New Netherland," later to bear 
his name. During the next month he explored 
this stream and, disappointed at finding no pas- 
sage, sailed for home, to tell of his new region ap- 
parently of good fertility and rich in furs. 



MAP STUDY No. 3 

THE LAND: "MY COUNTRY, 'TIS OF THEE'^ 

Text : Bassett, pp. 1-11 ; Farrand, Basis of American History. 
Map : The United States. 



THIS map study concerns itself with the in- 
terior of the great continent the exploration 
of whose coasts we have traced. It was, indeed, 
a magnificent home-land that was revealed to 
western civilization by these soldiers, missionaries, 



^nd fur traders who in early modern times cut 
their way through the wilderness or paddled their 
canoes along the almost endless waterways of 
North America. The migrations and settlements of 
Europeans on this soil cannot be intelligently fol- 



103 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



lowed, it is clear, without first spying out the land 
to note its chief outstanding features. Its si^e 
impresses us at once; applying the scale of your 
map, it is observed that some three thousand miles 
stretch between Cape Cod and Cape Mendocino 
and more than half as many from the Lake of the 
Woods to the mouth of the Rio Grande. Europe 
west of Russia could be included almost twice 
within the great rectangle of the United States. 

Its diversity is as impressive as its size. The 
land divides itself into six grand geographic prov- 
inces. They are the Coastal Plains, the Appala- 
chian Highland, the Central Lowland Plains or 
Prairie, the Northwestern Peneplain, the High 
Plains of the Southwest, and the Cordilleras. Let 
us indicate them in this order, for so they were 
reached by the Anglo-Saxon settlers, though ex- 
plorers had come last upon the northwestern 
plains. 

Starting at a point about three hundred miles 
up the Rio Grande, draw an arc, swinging toward 
the east, to a point on the Red River (Map 34) 
about four hundred miles from its mouth, and 
then a similar curve to the mouth of the Ohio. 
There the line goes almost straight to a point about 
two hundred miles north of Mobile Bay. This has 
defined the Gulf Coastal Plain. Continue, curving 
round the hills, northeastward to New York har- 
bor. Between this line and the sea, adding in Long 
Island, lies most of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, 
for the margin in New England is very narrow. 

Prof. Ellsworth Huntington, in his Bed Man's 
Continent,^ gives a clear description of the Appa- 
lachian Higliland. Of the three bands, the crystal- 
line is chiefly developed in New England, of which 
it occupies almost the whole. Where penetrated 
by the Hudson it is but a few miles wide and, 
smoothed to easy hiUs, includes Manhattari fsland , 
it then crooscs .sor*h..a' ' :.. a point beyond the 
Potomac, where it divides into the Piedmont or 
foothill region, about a hundred miles wide in Vir- 
ginia, and back of this the Blue Ridge, which final- 
ly itself becomes a high plateau cut into many 
peaks and stretching toward the west. The second 
band, the Appalachian valley system, begins at 
Lake Champlain and, following down the Hudson 

1 New Haven, 1919, pp. 59-68. 



to beyond the Catskills, it sweeps through to Penn- 
sylvania, where it rises and is striped by irregular 
ridges. From the southwestern counties of this 
state it rises gradually as it stretches out behind 
the Blue Ridge, until in the southern part of the 
Carolinas it reaches the high level of the eroded 
crj'stalline table-land. The third band, the "Alle- 
ghany front," runs through western Pennsyl- 
vania, West Virginia and eastern Kentucky as the 
Alleghanies; it rises higher in Tennessee, where, 
changing its name to Cumberland it is cut into 
deep, short isolated valleys, where live the "poor 
whites," famous in the missionary monthlies, the 
moving pictures, and internal-revenue reports. 

After the student has indicated these three sev- 
eral parts of the great Appalachian highland 
which extends along a line not far south of Lake 
Erie over most of Ohio, he may define the Central 
Lowland Plain or Prairie, roughly as the region 
inclosed by the Alleghany Plateau, the Great 
Lakes, the lower Ohio, and the last seven hundred 
miles of the Missouri, with bays running northwest 
into Canada, east into New York, and southwest to 
the Red. The Ozark Plateau stands between the 
last-named section and the Mississippi. ' ' There is 
some justification for those who say that the north 
central portion of the United States is more for- 
tunate than any other part of the earth. Nowhere 
else, unless in western Europe, is there such a com- 
bination of fertile soil, fine climate, easy communi- 
cation, and possibilities for manufacturing and 
commerce." The Northwestern Peneplain may be 
shown as extending northward from about the 
southern boundary of Nebraska, a region long un- 
settled, but despite its dryness now a field re- 
nowned for wheat and cattle. The High Plains 
toward the south are made of silt and gravel 
washed down from the Rockies, and here the 
horned cattle herded by the ranchmen have suc- 
ceeded the buffalo. To the west is, of course, the 
great Cordillera range, with its ridges of the Rock- 
ies and the Cascade-Sierra Nevada, holding be- 
tween them the Columbia Plateau and the dry 
Great Basin (Map 36). This great mountain sys- 
tem, fascinating to the geographer, did not come 
into our history until the middle of the nineteenth 



104 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



century, when its conquest for purposes of com- 
merce was more easily effected by the railroad. 

Certainly the varying climates of the earth ex- 
ercise a profound influence on the development of 
men and nations. A school of climatologists has 
arisen who believe this influence almost, if not 
quite, determining. It is said that the white race 
is physically at its best when the average tempera- 
ture ranges from 50° to 73° F.^ Since investiga- 
tion shows that the best mental work is done where 
the average outside temperature is about 40°, to 
get conditions best for mind and body it would be 
well, perhaps, to bring the figures down to 45° and 
65°, respectively. Relying upon the United States 
Weather Bui'eau maps, let us plot these isotherms. 
That of 45° begins at the southern corner of 
Maine and runs almost due west to Wyoming, 
thence south to the boundary of New Mexico, and 
then northwest to the northern line of Idaho. 
That of 65° begins at the mouth of the Santee 
River (Map 24) and, curving gently into the 
south, reaches the northwest corner of Louisiana, 
and then, deflecting slightly to the northwest, runs 
through Presidio on the Rio Grande (near 30° 
north latitude; Map 50a), across to New Mexico 
near its southwestern comer, then northwesterly 
nearly to Fresno, California (near Lake Tulare; 
frontispiece), and then, doubling south, it paral- 
lels the coast into Lower California. Comparison 
with a rainfall map would suggest deletion of the 
Rockies, southwestern California, southern Ari- 
zona, and the regions of the "high plains" north 
and south. After this correction there is a striking 
correspondence with the area of the highest civili- 
zation in America, as judged by many authorities,^ 
the greatest development being in the well- watered 



1 E. Huntington, Sed Man's Continent, chap, i; and 
Civilization and Climate (New Ilavon, 1915), chap. i. 

2 Huntington, Civilization and Climate, pp. 172-182. The 
interested student should consult Supan's map of climatic 
provinces, conveniently found reproduced in E. De 0. 
Ward's Climate (New York, 1908), p. 56. The whole 
subject of environment control of individual and social 
development may be studied conveniently by the aid of 
A. H. KoUer, The Theory of Environment (Mcnasha, 
Wisconsin, 1918), a handbook more of bibliographical 
suggestion than orderly exposition, and Jean Brunhes, 
Human Geography (New York, 1920). The student should 
be on his guard, however, with respect to generalizations 
advanced by anthropogeographers, remembering that many 
of the results of this science are as yet conjectural. 



region of the northeast and the basin of the Great 
Lakes. 

The distribution of the glacial drifts has so af- 
fected the fertility of the soil in our country, and 
thus the quality of civilization, that this subject is 
also worth at least a moment's investigation. The 
line marking the extent of the greatest glacial area 
may be indicated thus : virtually all New England 
being included, it may start from New York har- 
bor and proceed to Lake Chautauqua (Map 13) ; 
then, deflecting slightly to the southeast around to 
Warren, Ohio (Map 34) ; due west to Columbus 
and, deeply cui-ving, first toward the south, to 
Cincinnati; following the Ohio nearly to Louis- 
ville; abruptly north to a point not far west of 
Indianapolis ; doubling back to the mouth of the 
Wabash, and then across to Chester on the Missis- 
sippi (Map 41b), up which stream to the Missouri 
and then due west to the Kansas boundary, from 
which the line runs parallel with the Missouri 
River, at a distance of about a hundred miles, to 
its source, and thence to the mountains. Because 
the glacier converged in two streams, there is a 
driftless area comprising the southeast quarter of 
Wisconsin, where they had not yet united.^ The 
mechancially ground rock thus deposited has 
greatly increased the productivity of the soil. In 
Wisconsin it was found in 1910 that the average 
value of farm land in six counties partially cov- 
ered with drift was $56.90 per acre, while that of 
thirteen driftless counties, otherwise quite similar, 
was $33.30 per acre.^ But tillage of the glaciated 
soil, especially in the east, has required more labor. 
Professor Shaler has estimated that a month's toil 
is needed to put such an acre in a state of culti- 
vation. 

"Next to the quality of the •"'' '? -'KT'^fc t>ii« 
physiographer, in his famoi.is chapter in JaKtiu 
Winsor's History,^ "the forest covering of a coun- 



105 



1 For details, see G. Frederick Wright, The Ice Age in 
North America (5th ed., Oberlin, 1911), pp. 202 et seg. 

2 E. H. Whitbeck, "Economic Aspects of Galaciation in 
./isconsin," in Annals of the Association of American 
Geographers, vol. iii; cited by Huntington, Red Man's 
Continent, pp. 56-59. Similar observations have been 
made elsewhere — for example in Ohio and Indiana. 

3 Nathaniel Southgate Shaler deserves a word in such a 
work as this. He was a professor of paleontology and 
geology in Harvard from 1868 to 1906, and by his vol- 
uminous writing and his inspiring teaching did much to 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



try does, the most to determine its uses to man. 
Although the Western prairies have the temporary 
advantage in that they are more readily brought 
under cultivation than wooded regions, the forests 
of a land contribute so largely to man's well-being 
that without them he can hardly maintain the 
structure of his civilization. The distribution of 
American forests is peculiar. All the Appalachian 
moiuitain system and the shore region between 
that system and the sea, as well as the Gulf bor- 
der as far west as the Mississippi, were originally 
covered by the finest forest that has existed in 
the historical period, outside of the tropics. In 
the highlands south of Pennsylvania and in the 
western table-land north to the Great Lakes, this 
forest was generally of hardwood or deciduous 
trees ; on the shore land and north of Pennsylvania 
in the highlands, the pines and other conifers held 
a larger share of the surface. The parts of the 
land bordering on the Mississippi on the west, 
as far as the central regions of Louisiana, Arkan- 
sas, and Missouri, are forest clad, Michigan and 
portions of Wisconsin and Minnesota have broad 
areas of forest, but the cis-Mississippian states of 
Indiana and Illinois, and the tran-Mississippian 
country west to the Sierra Nevada, is only wooded, 
and that generally scantily, along the borders of 
the streams. Data for precise statements are yet 
wanting, but there is no doubt that this area is 
untimbered over about seven-eighths of its surface, 



stimulate interest in the influence of geography on history 
iu America. Justin Wiusor, librarian of Harvard from 
1S77 to 1897, was the foremost authority on early 
American iiistory. His greatest contribution was an 
eight-volume Narrative and Critical History of the United 
States, which he partially wrote and edited throughout 
with exhaustive bibliographies, and wliich every serious 
student of this subject must examine. Those who find 
an irir.-,-^' in ' '■ ''rical geop;raphy wil] appreciate the 
value of ibe many cjntemporary aiaps published in this 
work. 



and the wood which exists has relatively small 
value for constructive purposes. North of the 
regions described, except along the Pacific coast, 
where fine softwood forests extend from near San 
Francisco to Alaska, the forest growth rapidly 
diminishes in size, and therefore in value, from the 
forest resources it affords." The great cone-bear- 
ing forest of the lake states, running northward 
from the central part of Michigan, Wisconsin, and 
Minnesota, extends not quite to the western bound- 
ary of the last-named state.^ It is scarcely neces- 
sary to remark that this great mantle of forest 
directly affected the progress of the white man in 
America. It is estimated that on the average about 
a month of unremitting labor is required to clear 
an acre.^ Allowing for all the natural clearings, 
the student may yet realize some of the expense 
involved in the conquest of this continent. To 
make this clear shade with close light parallel 
lines, preferably with a green pencil, the area 
described. Black dots should be used to indicate 
the regions of the evergreen. 

The European immigrants had more to meet 
than forests, desert wastes, and roving beasts; 
north of Mexico there were a half million human 
beings, the Indians, now classified into fifty-nine 
linguistic families. By referring to Map 6 we can 
indicate the position of some of these which affect 
our early history — the Athapascan, Shoshonean, 
Caddoan, Siouan, Muskhogean, Iroquoian, and 
Algonquian. Each of these divisions, of course, 
includes a number of tribes, often showing great 
disparity in culture, the particular location of 
which vsdU be a concern of later studies. 



1 Cf. I. Bowman, Forest Physiography (New Yor^ 
1914), p. 124. 
- Slialer in op. cit, vol. iv., p. xii. 



MAP STUDY No. 4 

THE PATHFINDERS: SPANIARDS AND FRENCHMEN PENETRATE 

THE WILDERNESS 

Text : Bassett, pp. 37-39 ; Bourne, Spain in America, chaps, x-xiv ; R. G. Thwaites, France in America, 
chaps, i-iv. 

Map : The United States. 



THE first white men extensively to explore the 
vast exterior of America were Spaniards. 
They had found the land something more than an 
irritating barrier on the way to the Indies. Mines 
had been discovered in the Cordilleras which 
yielded such treasure as to dazzle the world and 
make no tale of wealth or wonders seem incredible. 
Ponce de Leon, the region of whose exploration 
should be shown (Map 5), was an example of the 
romantic-mindedness which urged on much of this 
inquiry. These enterprises, which, one by one, 
may now be traced, were doomed to disappoint- 
ment after heavy cost of human life, but they did 
drive forward daring men for thousands of miles 
over plain and mountain and through dense forest 
thicket, revealing to the world the character of the 
southern part of what is now the United States. 
They had not the happy fortune of the grim con- 
quisiadores who rifled ]\Iexico and Cuzco, but they 
are honorably remembered in historical geography. 
Pamfilo de Narvaez, in 1528, determining to 
take possession of a great grant on the Gulf, 
landed with six hundred men near Tampa Bay and 
started into the interior ; his numbers were terrib- 
ly reduced by starvation and disease, his ships 
were lost, and finally a few poor craft fabricated 
on the beach brought a handful of survivors to the 
Texan coast. One of these was the treasurer, 
Cabega de Vaca, who now became the leader of the 
castaways, and after five years' forced sojourn, 
during which time they saved their heads by clev- 
erly practicing the arts of medicine men, he and 
his companions escaped and made their way for 
three months across the Mexican plains and high- 
lands to the Aztec capital. His account, conven- 



iently available in J. P. Jameson's Original Nar- 
ratives of American History, though disfigured by 
patent exaggerations, was written with spirit, 
shows keen observations, and is one of the first to 
describe the social organization of the natives. It 
was this narrative which confirmed the plans of 
Hernando de Sota, who had served under Pizzaro 
as de Narvaez had under Cortez. With his six 
hundred and twenty followers he set forth from 
Tampa Bay on the long laborious route marked 
out on our map, ever fortifying the spirit of his 
dwindling little army by his own indomitable will. 
Though he himself was buried in the Mississippi, 
the survivors did not immediately halt the explor- 
ation ; but they were, in July, 1543, forced to turn 
their way south toward the Spanish settlements. 
"Thus ended the most remarkable exploring ex- 
pedition in the history of North America. Its only 
parallel is the contemporary enterprise of Cor- 
onado. ' '^ 

Acting on a story that the fabled Seven Cities 
of Cibola lay to the north, tlie g mor of Mexico 
sent Friar Marcos to mvestigale. He gained a dis- 
tant view of the Zuiii pueblos, and returned for 
aid, but was superseded by Francisco de Coronado. 
With three hundred Spaniards and eight hundred 
Indians he set out along the route which may be 
drawn after study of the map. Disllusioned a.s 
to ' ' Cibola, ' ' he pressed on over a great distance to 
further disappointment in the meager village of 
Quivira, which had been described to him with 
fantastic embellishments. Meantime de Soto's men 
were breaking through alone the Arkansas, and an 
Indian woman who had run away from Coronado 's 



107 



1 E. G. Bourne, Spam in America, p. 168. 



HAEPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



little army came upon these other Spaniards nine 
days later, so near to meeting had these two parties 
unconsciously approached. In 1542 Cabrillo ex- 
plored the Pacific coast ; he died en route, but his 
ship reached Cape Mendocino. In half a century 
Spanish enterprise had penetrated the continent 
almost from sea to sea ; though deeply disappointed 
at the apparent lack of mineral wealth, they 
had yet revealed a land of unsuspected size and 
variety. Four centuries after Columbus, a mighty 
nation, nourished from these hills and plains, was 
to crush the Spanish power almost in a single blow. 

Men left Spain for riches. But in other Euro- 
pean countries Christian unity had been shattered, 
and minorities who dared reject state creeds were 
so harassed that they sought a refuge even in the 
western wilderness beyond the sea. The first were 
French Calvinists, the Huguenots, a small group 
of whom a fitful royal favor allowed to leave and 
settle at Port Royal (Maps 5 and 6b) in 1562. 
This was soon abandoned, and two years later the 
leader of their sect. Admiral Coligny, sent another 
colony to the mouth of the St. Johns (Map 34), 
in the Florida region. Though the prospect seemed 
prosperous to them, the new settlement around 
Fort Caroline was stamped out, in 1565, by 
Menendez, a Spanish official who resented this 
intrusion by Frenchmen and heretics, and who 
about the same time began the building of St. 
Augustine (Map 5). He had really marked the 
end of Protestant colonization under the French 
flag, for during the civil wars that followed, and 
afterward the croveruuii'ut forbad'.' it. 

But it ^as c. vainly not to-be expected that the 
■vigorous Henry IV of France, when internal peace 
had returned to that country in 1589, would sit 
by contentedly while his royal " cousins " of Spain, 
and possibly England, carved out the New World 
between them. A few attempts at settlements at 
Tadoussac (Map 13) and in Acadia, later called 
Nova Scotia, were hardly successful, but Samuel 
de Champlain, in 1608, supported by the court of 
France, had better fortune in founding a town on 
the rock of Quebec. Instead of playing the benefi- 
cent peacemaker among the Indians, however, he 
joined the Hurons and Algonquins against the 
Iroquois Confederacy, and in May, 1609, the com- 



bined war party set out, starting from the mouth 
of the Richelieu and working their way to the 
long lake that was soon christened with the name 
of the French leader. There near modern Ticon- 
deroga they met and easily defeated the Iroquis, 
stunned and terrorized by the thundering weapons 
of the white men. Thus the leader from Quebec 
gained prestige with the Algonquins, but planted 
in the hearts of the Iroquis an undj'ing prejudice 
against the French. Champlain is to be remem- 
bered as an explorer as well as the captain of the 
little colony. He was fascinated by the silent 
sublimities of the forest, moved by religious zeal 
to reach as many Indians as possible, anxious to 
discover the long-sought waterway to the Pacific, 
and resolutely determined to mark out a goodly 
province for his royal master. These and the de- 
sire to develop the fur trade were the chief mo- 
tives of the French exploration. 

In 1603, before Quebec was founded, Champlain 
had gone some forty miles up the Saguenay, but 
his longest journey, covering about fifteen hun- 
dred miles, was that taken by his party in the ex- 
pedition against the Iroquois in 1615. Starting 
from Quebec, they went up the St. Lawrence and 
the Ottawa and, by Mattawan River and three 
small lakes, to the portage to Lake Nipissing. This 
carry is very short ; geologists have shovra that a 
depression of about a hundred feet at this point 
would turn the waters of the upper lakes into the 
Ottawa, shortening the route for navigation 270 
miles. Champlain 's forces made their way over 
the lake, down French River to Georgian Bay. 
After paddling along the eastern shore of this body 
of water they struck southeast by means of lakes 
and creeks and carries till, on reaching the Trent 
River, they floated into Lake Ontario in the Bay 
of Quinte behind the Prince Edward peninsula, 
easily identified on the map. Skirting along the 
islands, they crossed to the eastern shore and 
traveled overland to an Onondago fort just south 
of Oneida Lake (Map 11a), where they were re- 
pulsed and obliged to return witliout success. Such 
was a typical war raid. Champlain frequently 
found traces of traders and was entertained by 
Recollet priests working among the Huron Indians, 
though this was scarcely seven years after Quebec 



108 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



was founded. "Long before the ice-crusted pines 
of Plymouth had listened to the rugged psalmody 
of the Puritan, the solitudes of western New York 
and the stem wilderness of Lake Huron were trod- 
den by the iron heel of the soldier and the sandaled 
foot of the Franciscan friar. "^ 

A true pathfinder was Jean Nicolet, whom 
Champlain sent into the West in 1634, a century 
after Cartier 's exploration of the gateway of New 
France. We may trace his route from Lake Nip- 
issing along the northern shore of Georgian Bay 
and Lake Huron to Sault Ste. Marie, as the rapids 
of the river leading from Lake Superior came to 
be called. Keeping close to the land, he paddled 
to and through the Straits of Mackinac. He soon 
went on past the Chippewa country into that of 
the Winnebagos, with whom his knowledge of the 
Algonquin language availed him little. He pushed 
forward his canoe the length of Green Bay, up the 
Fox and across Lake Winnebago into the Mas- 
coutin country, but apparently did not take the 
portage to the Wisconsin. After circling into the 
south through the upper Illinois and Potawatomi 
lands, he again embarked on Green Bay, and by 
July, 1635, was at Three Rivers.^ 

Nicolet, as far as we know, had not seen Lake 
Superior, and it was over twenty years before the 
Sieur de Groseilliers wintered with the Sioux on 
its shores. He returned the following year, 1659, 
with his brother-in-law, the Sieur de Radisson, 
with whom he explored the southern and western 
borders of the lake. About a dozen years later, in 
1672, Louis Joliet, who had previously made some 
investigation for the provincial government as to 
the extent of the Lake Superior copper mines, was 
selected to explore the region of the great river of 
the West, of which the Chippewas and Sioux had 
eloquently spoken and which was believed to flow 
into the Pacific. At Michillimackinac Mission he 
found and interested Father Jacques Marquette, 



1 Francis Parkman, Pioneers of France in North Amer- 
ica (Boston, 25th ed., 1891), p. 179. The E^eoUets were 
Franciscans. 

- There is some disagreement as to the date and extent 
of Nicolet 's journey; the text here follows Justin Win- 
sor's Cartier to Frontenac (Boston, 1894), pp. 149-153, 
which account is very likely correct. See also Francis Park- 
man, The Jesuits in North America, p. 166 ; William 
Kingsford, History of Canada, vol. i, pp. 213-214. 



who was given premission to accompany him. 
The following day the trader and the missionary, 
together with five others, started over the same 
route taken by Nicolet nearly forty years before, 
but, unlike him, did not stop at the headwaters of 
the Fox. They found an easy portage here to the 
Wisconsin, only two miles away ; indeed, the latter 
river, being five feet higher than the Fox, some- 
times in flood season poured its waters over the 
shallow divide to mingle with those of the St. 
Lawrence basin. 

On July 17th the little party floated into the 
great river which Joliet called La Buade, after 
Governor Frontenac 's family, and which Mar- 
quette piously christened the Conception ; it later 
became generally known as the Colbert, and finally 
by the Indian name, the Mi.ssissippi. As they 
paddled downstream for a full month, past rocky 
bluffs and river mouths, green isles and wooded 
banks, from the region of the fir and northern oak 
to that of the holly and the pecan that grow about 
the Arkansas, they rightly divined that the great 
river emptied not into the Gulf of California, but 
into that of Mexico, but they could scarcely realize 
the vastness of the basin which it drained. The 
St. Lawrence system, with the lakes, affords some 
two thousand miles of navigable water, but that 
of the Mississippi, draining a basin of two and a 
half million square miles of territory, makes this 
seem small indeed, ' ' With forty or fifty consider- 
able tributaries, and a hundred thousand affluent 
streams in all, the great current carries to the Gulf 
a marvelous precipitation. These waterways offer 
sixteen thousand miles of navigable water, and it 
has been said that its great body of tributaries is 
more generally serviceable for transport service 
than that of any other river, except perhaps the 
Amazon."^ 

Joliet and Marquette, having satisfied them- 
seh'es as to the river's course, paused at a point 
now in southern Arkansas which Joliet placed at 
33° 40' north latitude, and turned again to the 
north. They made their laborious way to the 
mouth of the Illinois, over whose placid and well- 
shaped surface they paddled northeast to the Des 



109 



1 Justin Winsor, The Mississippi Basin (Boston, 1895), 
pp. 4-5. 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Plaines. A little eminence about forty miles south- 
west of modern Chicago they named Mount Joliet, 
and a community begun near here in the 1830 's, 
on second thought, in 1842, adopted Joliet as its 
name. The portage to the Chicago River was 
hardly a mile and a half, so slight is the divide be- 
tween the great river systems, and the explorers 
easily made their way to Lake Michigan and the 
north.^ 

The name of Rene Robert Cavalier, the Sieuro 
de la Salle, is forever associated with the explora- 
tion of the Mississipjji system.* In the summer of 
1669 he started upon his career as an explorer. 
Leaving his seigniory by the Lachine Rapids, about 
eight miles above Montreal, with certain Sulpitian 
priests he proceeded up the St. Lawrence and 
along the southern shore of Lake Ontario, stopping 
for a conference with the Senecas near the mouth 
of the Genesee in Irondequoit Bay (near modern 
Rochester; Map 11a). He continued to the west- 
ern extremity of the lakes and here fell in with 
Joliet, who, returning from his investigation of 
the copper region, had been the first white man to 
pass from Lake Iluron to Lake Erie, from which, 
by way of the Grand River and the land of the 
Neutral Indians, he had come to Lake Ontario. 
The Sulpitians left La Salle and, after waiting on 
the shore of the lake to the south, they were the 
first to reverse the route of Joliet, reaching Sault 
Ste. Marie in May, 1670. Meanwhile La Salle 
crossed to Lake Erie and thence in some way 
reached as far west as the Illinois. According to 
one account he went by way of the Allegheny 
(Map 17), and the Ohio to some point beyond the 
falls near modern Louisville (Map 47), and then 
overland; according to another, by way of the 
lakes and the Chicago portage. In 1675 La Salle 
received his patent of nobility and a grant of 
Fort Frontenac, which had been set up in 1673 and 



1 In an unfortunate upset in the rapida above Montreal, 
important papers were lost, and the account had to be 
written from memory. Marquette's narrative appears in 
the Jesuit Helations, a great series of records now trans- 
lated into English and published in seventy-three volumes, 
available in most large libraries. 

2 The most readable account of La Salle 's adventures is 
undoubtedly that of Parkman in his La Salle and the 
Discovery of the Great West (Boston), 1869. 



in consideration for which he was to explore the 
West. 

In 1678 his preparations were complete. A 
party was sent ahead to construct a fort at Niag- 
ara, where La Salle soon joined them near Grand 
Island, above the falls, and began the building of 
a ship called the Griffon. When this was done 
the party bore west under a spread of canvas and, 
taking aboard La Salle's lieutenant, Henri le 
Tonty, at the Detroit River, sailed on to Green 
Bay in Lake Michigan. The Griffon was dis- 
I)atched thence with a cargo of furs, to return, but 
the crazy ship, ill fabricated of green timber, dis- 
appeared in a gale before it reached the Straits of 
Mackinac. La Salle and Tonty, taking opposite 
shores of Lake Michigan, proceeded to the St. 
Joseph River. After carrying to the Kankakee 
(Map 34), they floated past the mouth of the Des 
Plaines and on down the Illinois to some settle- 
ments of Indians, where La Salle set up Fort 
Crevecoeur. 

The leader now determined to send a party to 
explore the upper waters of the Mississippi, while 
he himself investigated the lower, and Michel 
Accault was put in command, with Father Louis 
Hennepin, a Recollet friar, detailed to accompanj- 
him. The detachment thus directed made their 
way to the great river and up to a point a little 
distance beyond the mouth of the Wisconsin, where 
they were captured by a party of Sioux. As pris- 
oners they continued upstream to the vicinity of 
the FaUs of St. Anthony (St. Paul; Map 47), 
where the canoes were hidden, and the company 
proceeded overland to Lake Buade, about seventy 
miles due north. After a sojourn here Hennepin 
received permission to leave, and, reaching the 
Mississippi, was able to float down to the falls, 
which he named. Near here he and his boatmen 
fell in with a party of Sioux, with whom Accault 
was found, and the parties were joined. 

We must now turn attention to Daniel Greysolon 
Duluth (or Du Lhut), who had set up standards 
of the Grand Monarch of France throughout the 
western shoreland of Lake Superior, and had con- 
structed the rude Fort Kaministiquia (Map 13), 
in 1769. Starting from this country in June of the 
following year, he soon reached the St. Croix, 



110 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



where a stockade was built. He floated down this 
affluent of the great river, which the Indians had 
described to him and which he believed would lead 
to the Gulf of California in the South Sea. Stories 
of white men among the Sioux urged him forward 
and he fell in with Hennepin 's party on the Missis- 
sippi. But instead of pressing on to the Pacific, 
after hunting through the neighborhood the leader 
decided to return. With six other Frenchmen he 
took the Wisconsin route to Green Bay, proceeded 
to Machillimackinae and finally to the Eastern 
settlements, to recite the story of their hardships 
and achievements. 

La Salle returned to Fort Frontenac, and in 
;(.680 made a fruitless visit to Fort Crevecoeur, 
which he found in ruins, with Tonty and the rest 
fled to Machillimackinae to escape the warring 
Iroquois. In the winter of 1681, with some fifty 
French and Indian companions, he came again to 
cross the Chicago portage and work along the 
frozen Illinois to the Mississippi, down which they 
sped, past the region of the Arkansas, where Joliet 
and Marquette had turned about, and finally to 
the mouth. 

The explorer, who had carried the French arms 
from the St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico and 
named Louisiana in honor of his sovereign, after- 
ward, in 1684, enlisted royal patronage for a settle- 
ment at the gi'eat river's mouth. But fumbling 
along the coast of Texas, he mistook Matagorda 
Bay (Map 41a) for such, and on a little river 
there set up a colony and a Fort St. Louis. Disap- 
pointment and distress resulted, and near the 
Trinity River, inland from Galveston Bay, La 
Salle was assassinated. The colony wasted away 
and the French attempts to gain a hold in Texas 
were abandoned. The Spanish soon followed La 
Salle in this region, beginning in 1690 to establish 
their missions, of which five now remain in ruins 
at San Antonio. 

But French ambitions for control of the Missis- 
sippi Valley were still cherished ; in 1699 Pierre le 



Moyne d 'Iberville led out an expedition to the 
Gulf coast, and, after building a fort at Biloxi, set 
up another on the Mississippi about forty mUes 
from its mouth (Map 14). Mobile, named after 
the neighboi-ing Maubila Indians, a Muskhogean 
tribe (Map 6), was founded in 1702 and was for a 
time the capital of the province. But in 1718 
the "Western Company," headed by John Law, 
who had excited France with his financial scheme 
to exploit the natural wealth of Louisiana, sent 
Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, to 
found the town of New Orleans, which, with a dis- 
couraging beginning, became the most prosperous 
French city in America. 

The French had carried their flag over a noble 
domain, and yet their conquest had been slow 
compared with that of the Spaniards who followed 
Columbus. And the French posts, so impressive 
on the map, were generally but straggling groups 
of cabins, each with a knot of bickering traders, 
two or three priests, and a tiny guard of soldiers. 
There were few homes. The priests, though the 
RecoUets, Sulpitians, and Jesuits sometimes 
checked one another, performed a mighty service 
for France as well as for religion. ''Men steeped 
in antique learning, pale with the close breath of 
the cloister, here spent the noon and evening of 
their lives, ruled savage hordes with mild, parental 
sway, and stood serene before the direst shapes of 
death. "^ A few representative missions wUl, if 
located (Map 13), serve to indicate the extent of 
this service — those of the Recollets at St. Croix by 
Tadoussac (1600), and Three Rivers (1634) ; those 
of the Jesuits at Sault Ste. Marie (1639), La 
Pointe (1665), St. Francis Xavier on Greer" ^' 
(1671-72), St. Ignace (by Marquette in 
and St. Francis de Sales (1683) ; «rrl tl 
Sulpitians at Quinte Bay on thp 
of Lake Ontario (1668). 



1 F. Parkman, Pioneers of Fro 
p. ziii. 



MAP STUDY No. 5 

THE TOBACCO COUNTEY: VIRGINIA AND I^IARYLAND 

Text : Bassett, pp. 45-58 L. G. Tyler, England in America, chaps, iii-vii. 
JIap : South Atlantic States. 



WHILE King James I of England sought a 
Spanish wife for his son Charles, the cus- 
tomary plundering of the galleys of Seville was re- 
garded inappropriate and the capital hitherto em- 
ployed in privateering became available for other 
enterprises. Two groups of merchants, called, re- 
spectively, the London and the Plymouth com- 
panies, were granted patents for plantations in 
the region vaguely known as Virginia, the former 
to have the coast land from 34° to 38° as exclu- 
sively its sphere, and the latter to have that be- 
tween 41° and 45°. The country between was open 
to either, it being understood that a settlement in 
this intermediate zone kept out rivals for a dis- 
tance of a hundred miles on each side. The com- 
panies did not get possession of the whole of their 
regions, but only the right each to stake out within 
its assigned area a colony extending along the 
coast fifty miles north and south of its first plan- 
tation and inland one hundred miles. 

When Capt. Christopher Newport, in 1607, 
sailed through the fifteen-mile strait between the 
capes he named for the Princes Charles and 
Henry, and after cautiously traversing the shal- 
lows came at last to rest in the deep water of 
"FT amnion Roads, he called the land near by. Point 
H (Map 7a). Here he recognized a place 
' -■■ nt and eligible for settlement than 
°igh's men had found some twenty 
oanoke and Croatoan, the former 
7b and the latter lying directly 
3atteras.^ The ship-worn colo- 
•lanks of the James saw a smil- 
'ol in ]\Iay foliage, a month 
-16, and abounding in game 

ent had been vacated because of 
"or having supported a rival of 



and fish, the latter so numerous in many of the 
rivers and creeks that they could be killed with 
sticks. "We attempted," writes Captain Smith, 
' ' to catch them with a frying pan ; but we found 
it a bad instrument to catch fish with."^ Besides 
the deer, small bear, opossum, raccoon, and other 
beasts whose flesh was good to eat, there was every 
bird that flourished in England, except the pea- 
cock and the chicken.^ 

But more interesting were the Indians: those 
of the Powhattan Confederacy scattered along the 
coast, and the Piscataways by the Potomac — both 
Algonquian (cf. Map 6) ; the Iroquoian Nottaways 
to the south of the Appomattox; and the Siouan 
tribes, the Monacans on the upper James, with the 
Manahoacs to the north of them and the Ocaneechis 
to the south. It would be some years before Vir- 
ginia came into contact with the Cherokees who 
roamed the country beyond the Blue Ridge 
nearly as far north as the sources of the James. 

Tidewater Virginia, described by the geologists 
as but lately risen from the sea, is divided into 
three terraces ; the first, beginning just behind the 
shore strip, is composed of light sands and clays, 
most fertile on the Norfolk and Accomac penin- 
sulas (Map 7a) ; the second has many beds of 
coarse gravel interspersed with yeUow and blue 
marl ; the third is higher, but of the same forma- 
tion. ' ' Under the influence of a mild climate and 
the moisture of the sea, the soil is prolific in many 
forms of vegetable life, but soon loses its fertil- 
ity."^ It was easily adapted to tobacco culture, 
but was exhausted in many places before Virginia 



112 



1 Worl-s of Capt. John Smith (edited by Edwin Arber, 
New York, 1884), p. 418. 

2 P. A. Bruce, Economic History of Virginia (New 
York, 1896), vol. i, pp. 123-124. 

8 P. A, Bruce, op. cit., vol. i, pp. 76-77. 



HABPER'S ATLAS OF, AMERICAN HISTORY 



became a state. Better land was found in strips 
along the James, the York (with its two affluents, 
the Pamuakey and the Mattapony), the Rappa- 
hannock, the Potomac, and scores of smaller 
streams which rise in the Blue Ridge or cut 
through from the Shenandoah VaUey. On these 
alluvial banks were placed the principal planta- 
tions, leaving wilderness between the rivers. From 
Map 7a the thirteen counties which had been 
formed by 1652 may be shown with dates by using 
numbers and a key. These, it may be seen (Map 
8), are mostly, but not entirely, within the frontier 
line. The conflict of interest between the coast 
towns and the back country was later, in 1676, il- 
lustrated by the rebellion of Nathaniel Bacon, a 
planter living near the falls of the James, the site 
of modern Richmond (Map 16), 

Jamestown, the first settlement under the Lon- 
don Company's charter of 1606, was on a low 
island, ill chosen, contrary to directions. Not only 
was it indefensible against the Indians, but lay 
open to the evil winds from the numerous malarial 
marshes, the largest of which, the Great Dismal 
Swamp, may be indicated as southeast of the 
Elizabeth River. The colony was first reckoned 
as a himdred miles square, but in 1609 new lines 
were drawn for the new Virginia Company. It 
was then ambiguously stated that this territory lay 
two hundred miles along the coast each side from 
Old Point Comfort and ' ' up into the land through- 
out from sea to sea, west and northwest." This 
uncertainty gave rise to controversies; some law 
officers maintained that the southern line should 



run northwest and the northern line due west, but 
the company and the colonists chose to interpret 
it the other way, which, instead of a small triangle, 
gave them constantly diverging lines, including 
even parts of the great lakes. This helps us to 
understand why Virginia sent Washington to warn 
ofi: the French in 1754, and George Rogers Clark 
to clear the West of British in 1778. 

The charter for Maryland, issued to the son of 
the Catholic Lord Baltimore in 1632, superseded 
part of Virginia's claim. The Potomac, with a 
line east from its mouth, across Chesapeake Bay 
and the peninsula called the Eastern Shore, formed 
the southern bouudaiy ; on the west it had, unlike 
Virginia, a definite land limit, a line due north 
from the westernmost head of the Potomac; the 
northern line was the fortieth degree of latitude. 
It was not until 1767 that the present boundary 
of 39 ° 43' was surveyed by two English engineers, 
Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, thus ending 
a long controversy between the ^proprietors of 
Maryland and Pennsylvania. Using Majss 8 and 
10, one may find Kent Island (where Claiborne 
had taken possession under a Virginia grant), the 
principal Maryland settlements, the counties, and 
the frontier line by the middle of the seventeenth 
century. It will be noticed that the town of Bal- 
timore was not founded till 1729 (Map 16), but it 
grew so rapidly that in Revolutionary time its 
population numbered eight thousand, profiting, as 
it did, by the trade of the Susquehannah Valley 
of Pennsylvania, just as Norfolk controlled much 
of the commerce of North Carolina. 



MAP STUDY No. 6 

NEW ENGLAND: THE HOME OF A MARITIME PEOPLE 

Test : Bassett, pp. 59-71 ; Tyler, England in America, chaps, ix-xvi. 
Map: New England. 



TN this map study attention is directed to the 
*- rocky coast which stretches from the St. Croix 
River nearly to Manhattan Island, pierced with 
many a navigable inlet and estuary, as if devised 
by nature as the home of a maritime people. 
Portuguese, Frenchmen, and Englishmen had 



sailed along this coast during the sixt. 
tury, but Bartholomew Gosnold, in IP' 
ably the first to sail straight across f' 
these latitudes, thus avoiding th'^ 
the southern waters. He made a 
ment at the western end of th' 



113 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



opposite Martha's Vineyard (Map 9). This latter 
name, applied at first to a smaller neighboring 
island, was probably in its original form, "Mar- 
tin's Vineyard," called after one of Gosnold's 
crew. There were numerous other voj^ages and 
probably several unremembered trading settle- 
ments. 

The exploration of the Kennebec by "Weymouth 
searching for the northwest passage, in 1G05, as re- 
ported in England, made such an impression that 
Sir Fcrdinando Gorges and other patrons furthered 
exjiloration, and the London and Plymouth com- 
panies were organized and assigned areas for 
patents. That of the latter extended from Long 
Island to Passamaquoddy Bay, and under it Chief- 
Justice Popham sent out a colony, which set up 
at Sagadahoc, at the mouth of the Kennebec 
(Map 8). Though this was abandoned because of 
cold and famine, the company, reorganized as the 
Council for New England in 1620, continued to 
bestow rights to settlement. 

In 1614 this company employed John Smith to 
explore the coast of the great bay lying between 
40° and 44° north latitude, which he named New 
England because of certain similarities to the home 
land. Of the local names bestowed by him, Capes 
Elizabeth and Ann, Ipswich, Plymouth, and the 
Charles River yet remain, and may be indicated 
on the outline map together with a letter S in 
parentheses. 

About the time of Captain Smith's visit the 
Indians along the coast were decimated by a pesti- 
lence, a fact which encouraged colonial enterprise 
and facilitated settlement. It was found when 
communities had come to be established at some 
distance from the shore that the upland Indians 
were a more formidable foe. The position of the 
principal tribes important in relation to the whites 
may be located as follows: the Abenakis in the 

•inebec and Penobscot Valleys (Map 43a) ; the 

•acooks or Pawtuckets of New Hampshire; 

achusetts along the Charles ; the Wampa- 

th of Plymouth ; the Narragansetts in 

f modern Rhode Island ; Pequots and 

'he shore between the Connecticut 

t Bay; the Nipmucs in central 

\e Wappingcrs from the lower 



Connecticut across the Hudson, with their kinsmen 
of the Mohicans to the north. 

The boundaries of the New England colonies 
were frequently in dispute. Massachusetts 's ex- 
treme northern claim, as "three miles north of the 
Merrimae," is shown on Map 8. This explains 
the northern extent of the claims of that state pre- 
ferred later in western New York and the region of 
Lake Michigan (Map 21a). Connecticut's bounds 
were long disputed. Her controversy with Rhode 
Island was too complicated for discussion here, 
inasmuch as the final line was fairly regular. The 
oblong indentation in the northern boundary, ob- 
sei'vable on large maps, is a reminder of the igno- 
rance of two "mathematicians" who, in 1642, 
made a survey for IMassachusetts, for that colony 
claimed a line running just north of "Windsor, and 
Connecticut finally reclaimed all but this oblong. 
The odd-looking extension at the southwest is thus 
accounted for: Connecticut settlers, because of a 
temporary boundary understanding in 1664, made 
their homes along the Sound almost to Mamaro- 
neck, and in 1683 New York agreed that most of 
these towns should stay in Connecticut, allowing 
them the eight miles of depth.^ New York, how- 
ever, whose boundary was supposed to be about 
twenty miles east of the Hudson, obtained in rec- 
ompense a strip two miles broad from Connecti- 
cut and running to the Massachusetts line; this 
was called the "equivalent tract." 

The extent of the settlements by the middle of 
the seventeenth century, together with the chief 
natural features, should be shown; and twelve 
towns, connecting with each some historical fact, 
by means of a key sheet. Show also the frontier 
line in 1689. There are no such waves of move- 
ment up a river as we see along the Hudson and 
the James. Had the Mayflower come to land in the 
mouth of the Connecticut River, the history might 
have been different ; but the lines of human develop- 
ment actually were transverse rather than lon- 
gitudinal." This was a condition valuable for politi- 
cal solidarity as well as for defense. 



114 



1 Our Map 9 fails to niako thia indication; see Map 24. 

2 A. P. Brigham, Geographical Influences in American 
Eiitory, p. 59. 



MAP STUDY No, 7 

THE DUTCH AND QUAKER COLONIES: GREAT GRANTS AND 

SI^IALL FARMS 

Text : Bassett, pp. 72-76, 83-88 ; Tyler, England in America, pp. 291-295 ; C. M. Andrews, Colonial 
Self-government, chaps, v-viii, xi, xii. 

Map : Middle States. 



THOUGH settled slowly in the seventeenth 
century, the middle group of colonies, partly 
because of their geographical position, were of 
great importance, and were finally, by 1825, to 
surpass the other groujis in population. On four 
considerations New York was fit to be the ' * seat of 
empire." Its well-protected harbor, admired by 
Verrazano and Hudson, with deep water clear to 
three different shores, would of itself have given 
it a noble destiny. It was of great strategic value 
because the Hudson and Champlain Valleys made 
an easy road from or into Canada, which was for 
over a century in the hands of a hostile power. 
In Map Study No. 3, it was observed that here 
alone, along the Mohawk trough cut through by 
the glacier, does the Appalachian system lapse in 
all its parts, making thus a gateway to the great 
interior of North America, a road for wealth and 
people. And New York would have been impor- 
tant, if for no other reason, because it was the land 
of the Iroquois, "the Romans of the West." 

The location of the five "nations" of the con- 
federacy may be indicated from Map 11a. In 
1713 the Tuscaroras, of North Carolina, who ai-e 
shown on Map 6 to be of Iroquoian stock, were 
badly beaten by the whites and soon afterward 
came north to settle with their kinsmen near 
Oneida Lake. Though not very numerous^ the 
Iroquois were recognized as the most effective 
savage fighters on the continent. The Mohicans 



1 About 1670 the warriors of the Five Nations were 
reckoned by the French and English as 2,000 (see G. W. 
Schuyler, Colonial New Yorlc, New York, 1885, vol. i, p. 
309), while nearly a century later, because of wars and 
famine, Sir WOliam Johnson believed that there were no 
more than that number (Documentary History of New 
York, vol. iv, p. 428). 



extended to the upper Hudson, while the Wap- 
pingers, of the same stock, occupied what is now 
Westchester, Putman, Dutchess, Rockland and 
Orange Covmties, reaching to the Munsees, who 
held the region south of the Mohawks. On Long 
Island, the Canarsees held the west, the Shinne- 
cocks the center, and the Montauks the east. About 
the middle of the eighteenth century, the Iroquois 
drove the Delawares, or Lenapes, out of the river 
valley that bears their name (Map 13) into east- 
ern Ohio (Map 15b). The French constantly 
attempted, without permanent success, to attach 
the Iroquois to their interest, and sent them mis- 
sionaries as well as soldier-diplomats. Father 
Isaac Jogues came to the Mohawk country in 1642, 
giving the name of Lac St. Sacrament to the body 
of water later, in 1755, called Lake George. The 
mission of the Abbe Piequet, founded about a cen- 
tury later at Fort de la Presentation (now Og- 
densburg), is shown on Map 13. 

The frontier line drawn on Map 8 indicates ap- 
proximately the extent of Dutch settlement in 
the Hudson Valley, though in 1652 a settlement 
was made at Roundout Creek and in 1661 Wilt- 
wick (Kingston; Map 9) was chartered, while 
Schenectady was founded in the same year. The 
names on Map 9 show that northeastern New Jer- 
sey was within the sphere of Dutch settlement, 
whereas those on eastern Long Island bear quite 
as unmistakable witness to New England origin 
most of them from Connecticut and New Hav 
But other stocks were represented in the ■ 



115 



1 Between 1650 and 1654 Connecticu* 
tion of eastern Long Island; see the 
Hildreth's History of the United S 
1849), vol. i, p. 438; vol. ii, p. 44. 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



teenth century; indeed, the first settlement had 
been made in 1614 on the site of the Brooklyn 
Na-^y Yard by Flemish Protestants known as the 
Walloons, while in 1677 New Paltz was founded by 
Huguenots who had been some time in the colony, 
and New Rochelle was bought and settled by others 
who came shortly after the revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes in 1685. 

The Dutch West India Company, after its per- 
manent settlement of Manhattan Island in 1623, 
hesitated between a policy of maintaining a mere 
trading post and one of colonization. A partial 
victory for the latter brought out the scheme of 
1629, in which pro\'ision was included for patroons. 
Six such were constituted, holding lands in what 
is now Delaware and New Jersey as well as New 
York, but only Van Rensselaer was finally suc- 
cessful with his great estate of Rensselaerswyck. 
At the time of the Revolution this had grown to 
a tract of 1,132,000 acres, or 1,770 square miles — 
an area sixty times the size of Manhattan Island — 
running south on both banks of the Hudson from 
the mouth of the Mohawk, in what is now Albany 
and Rensselaer Counties. Besides this there were 
£00,000 acres in Columbia County in the hands of 
the family.^ The English governors continued the 
unfortunate practice of granting huge patents, so 
that, about 1700, three-fourths of the province 
was alleged to be in the hands of some thirty 
persons. The grant to Johannes Ilardenburgh, 
patented in 1708, of what is now Sullivan County 
and the southeastern half of Delaware, together 
with substantial parts of Greene and TTlster (Map 
11a), may stand as an example of their large hold- 
ings. The southern third of Columbia County was 
the Livingston Manor. These patents, with their 
uncertain boundaries and. where settled, their pe- 
culiar restrictions on the tenanti-y, combined ■with 
the frontier situation of New York and the pres- 
ence of the Iroquois to discourage the gi-owth of 
that colony. 

The Swedish settlement on the Delaware, es- 

nally Fort Christina (Wilmington) and Port 

Elfsborg, should be shown, while Fort Nas- 

-^ ill '^i^+ed Swaanandael (now Lewes, Dela- 

'er Colder 's mnp reproduced in Justin 
ol. V, pp. 236-237. 



ware) recall the overlapping Dutch claims based 
on Hudson's discovery of the "South River." 
Fort Good Hope, on the Connecticut, built in 
1634 near modern Hartford, placed the Dutch as 
traders on that river as well as on the Hudson, the 
Mohawk, and the Delaware. 

Although New Haven Puritans were on the 
Delaware in 1641 (two years later ejected by the 
Swedes, who built New Elfsborg), and at Newark 
in 1666, tlie English settlement of the peninsula 
of New Jersey did not make headway until the 
later 'sixties. Then Sir George Carteret began to 
develop the ea-stern part of the peninsula of New 
Jersey, which the Duke of York had granted to 
him and Lord John Berkeley in 1664. Ten years 
afterward the latter conveyed his part to cer- 
tain Quakers, of whom William Penn was the 
leader. The following j-ear the settlement of Salem 
(Map 10) was made, and in 1677 that of Burling- 
ton. In 1676 the " quintipartite deed" fixed the 
line between East and West Jersey as shown upon 
our map. In 1682 East Jersey also came into the 
hands of prominent Quakers and others, though it 
was sejiarately ruled, with its capital after 1686 
at Perth or Perth Amboy.^ Although, in 1692, 
after the fall of the Dominion of New England of 
which the Jerseys were a part, the two provinces 
had a common governor, and fi-om 1701 were 
united as one government under the governor of 
New York till 1738, when a separate governor was 
assigned to New Jersey, the old sectional difference 
between the east and west persisted throughout 
the colonial period. The eastern settlements from 
their New England origin used the township sys- 
tem of local government, while the western used 
the county. Until 1790, when Trenton was se- 
lected as the capital, the legislature met in alternate 
years at Burlington and Perth Amboy. The south- 
ern part of New Jersey was settled slowly and to 
this day the south central portion, known as the 
"cranberry country," is very sparsely populated. 

The early settlements of Pennsylvania were con- 
fined to the region of the lower Delaware, and were, 
of course, made chiefly by Quakers at or near 

1 This curious name demands expl.an.ntion. The original 
Indian n.imc was supposed to be Amboy; in 1684 the 
proprietors called it Perth after James, Earl of Perth, 
one of their number. Soon the names were combined. 



116 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Philadelphia in 1682. From the beginning, how- 
ever, the colony was cosmopolitan; on our map 
are shown Merion, settled by Welsh as part of 
their "barony" in 1682, and Germantown by 
Mennonites in 1683. Newcastle, Upland, and 
other settlements of Swedes, Finns, and Dutch 
were there when Penn arrived. But the regions 
subsequently settled by the Germans and Scotch- 
Irish we shall have occasion to consider in a later 
map study. 

Perm's controversy with Baltimore over the 
southern boundary we have mentioned; he like- 
wise disputed with the Duke of York as to whether 
the northern line was at 42° or 43°, and with 
Virginia at the west (see Map 16), which question 
was not settled finally until 1784 in Penn's favor. 



When after the temporary reconquest by the 
Dutch, in 1672-74, the old jurisdiction of their 
holdings was restored to the Duke of York, he 
determined that none should encroach upon New- 
castle, his seat of government for the Delaware 
region, and fixed his boundary by an arc drawn 
with that place as a center and a radius of twelve 
miles. This was later retained as the boundary 
of the Three Lower Counties, New Castle, Kent, 
and Sussex, shown on our Map 10. Because of 
economic and political rivalries, in 1691 Penn 
gave a deputy governor to these counties ; in 1704 
they obtained a separate assembly, and in 1710 
a separate council. They remained until 1776 under 
the authority of the governor of Pennsylvania. 



MAP STUDY No. 8 

THE SOUTHERN" PLANTATIONS : THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA 

Supplement : Aitempt at Government System 

Text: Bassett, pp. 81-83, 106-110, 71, 92-98; Andrews, Colonial Self-government, pp. 129-161; 
Greene, Provincial America, pp. 249-269. 

Map: South Atlantic States. 



THE early settlers of the southern colonies had 
to contend with tribes of fierce and cunning 
Indians. Relations, sometimes of trade, some- 
times of war, were kept up with the Yemassees 
in the valley of the Savannah (Map 7b), the Ca- 
tawbas on the Wataree (Map lib), and the Tus- 
caroras on the Neuse (Map 7b), while occasionally 
they came into contact with the Creeks, who 
reached around the southern spurs of the moun- 
tains to beyond the Altamaha (Map lib) ; the 
Seminoles of Florida (Map 15b) ; the Chickasaws, 
who ranged the middle course of the Tennessee; 
and the Iroquoian Cherokees, whose dominion ran 
along the valleys well up into Virginia (see also 
Map 6). 

King Charles II in 1663 and 1665 conveyed to 
eight favorites the rights of property and juris- 
diction between 29° and 36° 30' north latitude. 
By 1669 the proprietors were ready to begin the 



117 



colony, and, gathering up their colonists in Eng- 
land, Barbadoes, and Bermuda, islands which may 
be observed on Map 12, but cannot well be in- 
dicated in this study, they established a settle- 
ment on Albemarle Point at the mouth of the 
Ashley River (Map 7b). This situation proving 
somewhat unfavorable, many soon removed to the 
neck between the Ashley and Cooper Rivers, both 
named for Anthony Ashley Cooper, a proprietor, 
beginning there a community now known as 
Charleston. The older settlement was abandoned 
in 1680, when the new Charles Town was made 
the seat of government. Colleton, Berkeley, Craven 
(next to the north), and Clarendon Counties, 
all bearing names of proprietors, were marked off, 
the colonists keeping close to the coast. 

The configuration of the land as weU as the 
spirit of John Locke's "Fundame]- ''■" 

tions," prepared in England foi- 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



prietors, suggested large plantations. The sea 
islands, with a coast land some ten miles broad, of 
similar sandy loam, stretching from the mouth of 
the Savannah to that of the Pedee (Map lib), 
were later famous for their cotton. Behind this is 
a band about thirty miles in width, abounding in 
fresh-water swamps by which great quantities of 
rice were soon to be produced ; and farther inland 
a narrow belt of pine and grass where cattle were 
pastured. Within these districts the colonial ac- 
tiv-ity of southern Carolina was largely confined, 
the coastal region being disproportionately repre- 
sented long after the back country was fairly well 
peopled. The settlement naturally followed the 
coast and the rivers, as illustrated by the Hugue- 
nots along the Santee.^ 

Besides the communities near Charles Town, in 
Albermale County there was a settlement far to 
the north, near the Great Dismal Swamp (Map 
Study No. 5), where conditions were quite dif- 
ferent. ' ' But for the peculiar conformation of its 
coast. North Carolina, rather than Virginia, would 
doubtless have been the first American state. It 
was upon Roanoke Island (Map 7b) that the 
earliest attempts were made, but Ealph Lane, in 
1585, already came to the conclusion that the 
Chesapeake region would afford better opportuni- 
ties. First and foremost, the harborage was spoiled 
by the prevalent sand bars. Then huge pine bar- 
rens near the coast hindered the first efforts of the 
planter, and extensive malarial swamps imperiled 
his life. ... It was only by the coast that the con- 
ditions were thus forbidding."- This description 
applies to the coast land south, but not north, of 
Albemarle Sound. 

Although the province of Carolina was in theory 
one, the settlements on either side of the Cape 
Fear River had separate governments from the 
beginning, and from 1713 were practically two 
provinces. A boundary line was attempted in 
1732, but was not finally agreed upon until 1815. 
Because of the failure of the proprietors to provide 
defense against the Tuscaroras in 1711, and against 
the Yeraassees in 1715, and on other grounds of 

iW. A. Schaper, "Sectionalism in South Carolina," 

Amr- ■ •• Tfixtorical Association Tlepnrl, 1900, vol. i, p. 269. 

^ske, Old Virginia and Ber Neighbors, yol. ii, 



inefficiency, the proprietary rights of government 
were surrendered in the southern province in 1719 
and in the northern in 1729, after which the Caro- 
linas were ruled as royal provinces. 

As the country of the Iroqiiois and of the Abe- 
naki tribes in Maine was disputed with the French, 
so the region south of Charles Town was claimed 
and fought for by the Spanish. There had been 
war along this southern coast and through the 
woods in 1686, and from 1703 to 1706. Although 
no attempt was made by the Carolina proprietors 
to colonize as far as their boundary line of 29° 
(Map 14), which was really south of St. Augus- 
tine, the provincial government built several forts, 
the chief of which was Fort George on the Altamaha 
River. The project of a barrier colony brought 
forward by James Edward Oglethorpe in 1732 
was, therefore, well received by the English minis- 
ters, though personally he seems to have had in 
mind no more the protection against the Spaniards 
and the development of English trade than an 
asylum for debtors and others — a "place of 
refuge for the distressed people of Britain and 
the persecuted Protestants of Europe." 

The charter to Oglethorpe and other trustees 
in 1732, when supplemented by a conveyance from 
a Carolina proprietor, gave them control of land 
between the Savannah and the Altamaha "and 
westerly from the heads of the said rivers respec- 
tively, in direct lines to the south seas, ' ' but Ogle- 
thorpe soon pushed his settlements to the St. 
Johns (Map 34). The early popidation of Georgia 
reflected the purposes of its founders. Savannah 
(Map lib) first laid out was occupied by "de- 
cayed people," i.e., debtors released from English 
prisons; Waldensian Protestants recently driven 
from Salzburg, then in Bavaria, built the town of 
New Ebenezer, twenty-five miles up the river ; 
Prederiea was established as a military garrison 
on St. Simon Island just southeast of the mouth 
of the Altamaha, while on the other side of this 
little sound was Darien, or New Inverness, settled 
by Scotch Highlanders; Augusta, far up the 
Savannah River, was a trading settlement set up 
by Carolinians. Forts William and St. Andrew, 
and St. George at the mouth of the St. Johns, 
stood as sentinels against the Spanish at St. 



118 



HAKPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Augustine. The extent of the Spanish claim may- 
be indicated from Map 14. 

SUPPLEMENT 

Attempts at Governmental System 

From your reading mark with a black C tlie colonies 
included in the New England Confederation of 1643, 



and with a black D those in the Dominion of New 
England (1688-89) indicating the portion under a dep- 
uty governor. Show the form of government of each 
colony after 1729, making note of the change in 
Georgia in 1753. The English Eevolution of 1688 
and 1689 certainly influenced American affairs; lo- 
cate places where there were violent readjustments in 
those years. 



MAP STUDY No. 9 

SOCIETY AND COMMERCE IN THE YOUNG AMERICAN 

COMMUNITIES 

Text : Bassett, pp. 134-158 ; Tyler, England in America, pp. 210-228 ; Andrews, Colonial Self-govern- 
ment, pp. 304-336; Greene, Provincial America, chaps, xiv, xvi-xviii. 

Map: Eastern United States. 



AMERICA has grown great and won the world 's 
regard by welcoming to her shores men of 
every race, creed, and class. Though the early 
immigrants were mostly from England, they lived 
as neighbors with the steady, thrifty Dutch and 
Swedish settlers on the Delaware and Hudson 
Rivers, and now were joined by ambitious poor 
or refugees from religious and political persecu- 
tion in many parts of western Europe. 

The Huguenots came from France in the reign 
of Louis XIV, although some had first sought 
refuge in England and the German Palatinate. 
They settled most numerously in South Carolina 
along the Santee River (Map lib), though some 
made their homes on the James near Henrico 
(Map 7a) in Virginia; in New York City, New 
Paltz (Map 9), and New Rochelle (Map 18b) ; in 
Rhode Island ; here and there in Pennsylvania ; in 
Orleans, on Cape Cod, and, to a small extent, 
in Boston. They seem unimportant in the census 
records, but in proportion to their number theirs 
was the most valuable stock that went into the 
making of America. 

Germany planted no colonies, as it had no politi- 
cal unity or national government until the nine- 
teenth century, but because of the devastation of 
the Palatinate by the land-greedy Louis XIV, the 
hopeless economic position of the peasants, and the 
discrimination by the princes against certain pie- 



119 



tistic sects, many companies and individuals came 
to America. On the map of Pennsylvania we have 
recorded the Mennonite settlement made in re- 
sponse to Penn's in\'itation. In 1709 and 1710 
Palatine refugees in England were sent by that 
government to New Berne, North Carolina (Map 
16), and to New York. In the latter province they 
were located near modern Newburgh and along 
the eastern banlt of the Hudson from Rhinebeck 
up to Germantown (Columbia and part of 
Dutchess County, Map 11a), on land bought from 
the Livingstons, and set to work preparing pitch 
for the English navy. Finding this irksome, most 
of them crossed to the Schoharie Valley (Schoharie 
County), but their land titles were disputed and 
a considerable number of them again moved on 
about 1725. Some went to the Mohawk, settling 
for nearly fifty miles along the river, where their 
settlement is recalled in names like German Flats, 
Mannheim, Minden, Palatine, Frankfort, Oppen- 
heim, Newkirk, and Herkimer, although those 
places need not be located. More made their way 
into Pennsylvania, settling on Tulpehocken Creek 
near the site of modern Reading (Map 21a). 

The Palatines were the first large group of 
German-Americans, but were only one. Moravi- 
ans, Mennonites, Dunkards, and Schwenkfelders, 
whose beliefs as to baptism and whose peculiar 
manners could be studied by the help of an ency- 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



clopedia, as well as Lutherans, Catholics, and 
others, came as immigrants, many of them inden- 
turing themselves to service to pay their passage. 
They did not linger in the immediate vicinity of 
Philadelphia, where, in the old Quaker country, 
land was highly priced, but spread in all dii-ec- 
tions, so that the region southwest of the Blue 
Mountain of the Kittatinny Range — that is, tlie 
territory which any modern detailed map of Penn- 
sylvania will show as the countries of Northamp- 
ton, Lehigh, Montgomery, Berks, Lebanon, Lan- 
caster, Adams, Cumberland, and Franklin — is still 
famous as the home of the "Pennsylvania Dutch." 
Some crossed the Delaware and became a part of 
the population of northwestern New Jersey; but 
many more families went on into Maryland, 
the Virginian piedmont, here and there through 
the Shenandoah Valley and along the up-country 
of the Carolinas west of the great pine barrens. 
Salem, North Carolina (Map 34), the center of the 
old Moravian colony of Wachovia, and Saxe- 
Gotha, near modern Columbia, and Orangeburg, 
South Carolina, among other places, recall the 
German settlements. 

The Scotch-Irish, in the early part of the eigh- 
teenth century, found their position in the pro- 
vince of Ulster growing more intolerable. Their 
land titles were challenged and the English gov- 
ernment harassed them, along with other Irishmen, 
with religious regulation and discriminating tariff 
laws. Many emigrated to America, some settling 
in Maine, where Belfast (Map 34) stands as a re- 
minder, some at Londonderry, New Hampshire (a 
little southeast of Chester; Map 34), and some in 
valleys of the Berkshires ; others made their homes 
along the Mohawk and Schoharie Valleys. But 
most of them landed in Philadelphia and, passing 
over the lands of the Quakers and the Germans, 
settled sparsely through the Alleghanies, but close- 
ly in Pittsburg and vicinity. From Pennsylvania 
they spread rapidly through the piedmont and 
southern valleys, soon outnumbering the Germans, 
whom they generally flanked to the west, and at 
times, in the Carolinas, the English. Though the 
majority came in thus by the ' ' back door ' ' of these 
southern colonies, another stream of this same im- 
migration ran from Charleston into the hiU coun- 



try. "In 1700 the foreign population in the col- 
onies was slight ; in 1775 it is calculated that 225,- 
000 Germans and 385,000 Scotch-Irish, together 
nearly one-fifth of the entire population, lived 
within the provinces that won independence." 

There were other groups that helped to vary the 
blood of English America. The Welsh settled on 
the "Welsh Barony" of 40,000 acres just west of 
Philadelphia, where the names of modern suburbs 
attest their origin, such as Merion (once Merioneth 
Town), Radnor and Ilaverford (Map 10), and, 
near by, Bryn Mawr, Bala, Ardmore, Wynnewood, 
Narberth, Cynwyd, Pencoyd, etc. Swiss sectaries 
found a home in New Berne, North Carolina (Map 
16), and Jews expelled from Portugal and Spain 
especially in New York City and Rhode Island. 
Catholic Irish in small numbers scattered them- 
selves throughout the colonies. 

Oftentimes succeeding waves of immigration 
left population seemingly in strata, as in New 
York. Here are Indian names, like Ontario, Os- 
wego, Oneida, etc. ; Dutch names, like Schenectady, 
Cohoes, and Spuj^en Dujn-il ; German names, like 
German Flats and Palatine; French names like 
those of the northern rivers, Racquette, DeGrasse, 
and St. Regis or of the Huguenot town, New Ro- 
cheUe ; the names of English towns or of pioneers, 
and later, in the national period, those of American 
statesmen. But place names in a new countrj', 
rapidly settled, wiU not, as a whole, mean as much 
as in Europe. A glance at the map suffices to 
show the resort to artificiality in the wholesale 
naming of townships. The classics and the capitals 
of the world were called upon to furnish names in 
great numbers. 

The desire to worship God in some way that 
chanced to violate the mandate of the state Church 
was undoubtedly a powerful motive in the minds 
of many emigrants to America. New Englanders, 
however, objected not to the principle of an estab- 
lishment, but only to the errors which they thought 
distinguished that in England; consequently, in 
all their colonies, except Rhode Island, taxes were 
collected for the Puritan-Congregational Church 
until the nineteenth century. In the South, Vir- 
ginia and the Carolinas maintained the Anglican 
or Episcopal Church with public money from the 



120 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



beginning until the Kevolution, although in North 
Carolina there was but one settled minister tiU 
after 1721, and the law was enforced hardly at all, 
because of the overwhelming proportion of dis- 
senters. The situation was similar in Georgia; 
though grants were made for religion at the foun- 
dation of the colony, there was really no state 
Church until 1758, about five years after it had 
become a royal province, and by 1769, shortly 
before it succumbed in the Revolution, there were 
but two churches in the establishment. The fol- 
lowing extract describes the situation in Mary- 
land : ' ' The first assembly convened by the royal 
government passed the act, in the year 1692, for 
the establishment in Maryland of the Church of 
England. . . . [After some time] Doctor Bray's 
bill became a law in the year 1701-02, and with but 
few amendments it remained in force until the 
Revolution of 1776."^ The arrangement in New 
York (Map 11a) was embodied in "The Ministry 
Act, 1693: 'An Act for settling a ministry and 
raising a maintenance for them in the City of New 
York, County of Richmond, .Westchester, and 
Queens County.' Passed September 22, 1693 
(Chapter 33)."^ But the act specified merely that 
a "good sufficient Protestant Minister" was to 
officiate in each parish, and it was never agreed 
that this excluded others than Anglicans. A stiff 
contest was fought by Presbyterians at Jamaica 
(Map 9) to wrest control of their church property 
away from the governor's clergyman. In New 
Jersey a weak claim was made that the Anglican 
Church was established, because it came under the 
same governor as New York, and under the law 
whose ambiguous phrasing we have just remarked. 
Sectarian enthusiasm was responsible for the 
foundation of all the colonial colleges but one, the 
College of Philadelphia, now the University ol 

^ N. D. Mereness, Maryland as a Proprietary Province 
(New York, 1901), pp. 437-439. 

2 Ecclesiastical Secords of the State of Netv York (Al- 
bany, 1901), vol. ii, pp. 1076-1079. Queens County in- 
cluded modern Kings. 



Pennsylvania. They can be located, with dates, 
from the following table :' 



Iti^titiition 
Harvard College 
William and Mary College 
Tale College 

Nassau Hall (Princeton) 
College of Philadelphia 

CU. of P.) 
Kings College (Columbia) 
Khode Island College 

(Brown) 
Queens College (Rutgers) 
Dartmouth College 



Place 
Cambridge, Mass. 
Williamsburg, Va. 
New Haven, Cozin. 
Princeton, N. J. 

Philadelphia 

New York, N. T. 

Providence, R. I. 
New Brunswick, N. 
Hanover, N. H. 



Sect Date 

Puritan 1636 

Anglican 1693 

Puritan 1700 

Presbyterian 1746 

1749 

Anglican 1754 

Baptist 1764 

J. Reformed 1766 

Puritan 1769 



From your reading, especially from C. M. 
Andrews's Colonial Self-government, Chapter 
XVIII, show what towns had become important 
commercial ports early in the eighteenth century, 
and indicate within parentheses the names of any 
said already to have declined. It is interesting to 
reflect upon the causes of the lessened importance 
now of Salem (Map 34), for example, which once 
led the shipping of English America; or Provi- 
dence, which at one time far surpassed New York. 
The extent of settlement of the hinterland, and the 
facilities of communication, often changed the 
trend of trade. One reason why Boston developed 
as a port, more than the coast cities of the South, 
was that it was nine degrees of longitude nearer to 
England. What city is not mentioned in Profes- 
sor Andrews's book dealing with the seventeenth 
century, which became one of America's chief 
ports by 1776? 

Mark with initial letters localities which pro- 
duced tobacco, indigo, naval stores, rum, rice, hats, 
ships, wool, fish, and iron goods. 



1 Place names can be found on Maps 9, 14, 18o, 34. For 
Washington College, now Washington and Lee University, 
the year 1749 is sometimes claimed as the date of founda- 
tion on the ground of continuation from an academy 
founded in Augusta County, Virginia, in that year. It 
did not become a college until 1813. It will be noticed 
that the collegiate movement had as yet made Uttle head- 
way in the South. DeBow, the Southern economist, esti- 
mated that one-third of the white people of the country 
in 1775 lived south of Mason and Dixon's Une (Map 38). 
The United States Census Bureau, omitting the figures of 
the University of Pennsylvania, estimates the attendance 
in the colleges north of the line as 687, that of those south, 
30; see A Century of Population Groivth (Washington, 
1909), p. 32. We shall see a situation quite changed in 
our survey of tho "Plantation Empire." 



MAP STUDY No. 10 

LATIN OR SAXON? THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 

Text : Bassett, pp. 112-130 ; Tyler, England in America, pp. 284-291 ; Greene, Provincial America, 
119-165 ; Thwaites, France in America, 72-280. 

Maps: North America; Eastern United States (2). 



IN the first decade of the seventeenth century- 
two rival European peoples set up outposts 
on the edge of a vast new continent of incomput- 
able size and wealth, and feebly lield by savages. 
By the end of the century these colonies had 
grown sufficiently to annoy each other, so thattheir 
second hundred years was mostly spent in conflict, 
though unsteady and often purely local. They 
competed for the fur trade, urged on the savages 
to massacre frontiersmen, took advantage of the 
wars in Europe to harass each other's commerce, 
till, with the gi-owth of population, they looked 
out toward the great West, and it was realized in 
European capitals, by those who knew, that a final 
struggle must be fought. What stock would come 
to rule the continent of North America, which 
could sustain as great and highly civilized a popu- 
lation as that of all Europe? Would it be Latin 
or Anglo-Saxon ? This question and its settlement 
have an important place in the history of the 
world. 

On the outline map should be shown the Euro- 
pean claims, occupation, and settlement in 1689 
(Map 12), although it should be remembered, as 
the English frontier line is drawn, that the 200,000 
settlers comprised within were chiefly concentrated 
verj' near the coast in thirteen different colonies, 
more or less self-governing and somewhat jealous 
of one another. While the Appalachian highland 
set a bound to English territorial growth, the 
northern waterways gave the French easy access 
to the West and encouraged a settlement far- 
reaching, but scattered and thin. The French 
area in 1689, impressive as it is on our map, con- 
tained less than a tenth as many people as the 
English. But they showed a larger proportion of 
adult men, they were under a single autocratic 



government, and, with one important exception, 
stood on better terms with the Indians. 

The Iroquois (Map Study No. 7) were aseful 
to the French holding back the English settlement 
from the western river valleys, but after the 
Church and the eastern traders had forced Fron- 
tenac's recall in 1682, these Indians sallied almost 
unopposed into Canada and massacred the village 
at La Chine, near Montreal. Frontenac, now sent 
back, determined to impress the savages and there- 
by control the Hudson-Mohawk route to the West, 
as well as those of the St. Lawrence and the Miss- 
issippi. In the winter of 1690 he formed war 
parties at Montreal, Three Eivers, and Quebec, 
and struck at Schenectady, Salmon Falls on the 
Piscataqua (Map 9), and Casco (later known as 
Falmouth; Map 14). In return the same year 
New England sent out forces which took Port 
Koyal in Acadia (Map 12) ; then representatives 
of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth co- 
operated with New York, which was to furnish 
half the troops in an expedition against Montreal, 
but, the Iroquois failing to support, most of this 
expedition was abandoned at Lake George (Map 
11a). Massachusetts was so encouraged by the 
Acadian ventures that it sent out a fleet under Sir 
William Phips to take Quebec. Sir William, on 
arriving at the French fortress, let slip his oppor- 
tunity through delay, and returned without suc- 
cess. After these activities of 1690, hostilities 
lapsed into a petite guerre along the frontier until 
the indecisive Peace of Ryswick was announced. 

The second period of formal struggle began in 
1702, but for the next seven years consisted chiefly 
in border forays in northern New England, of 
which the famous raid at Deerfield (Map 141, in 
1704, may serve as an example. In that year 



122 



HAEPER'S ATLAS OF, AMERICAN HISTORY 



and in 1707 there were two unsuccessful attempts 
to retake Port Royal, which had been returned to 
France in 1697. Colonial agents now interested 
the mother country in an expedition, and sufficient 
naval aid was given to make possible this capture 
of the Acadian town, which now became Annapolis 
and has remained English to the present day. The 
following year Massachusetts co-operated with an 
English fleet and army in another attempt against 
the famous fortress on the St. Lawrence, while a 
land expedition supported by the middle colonies, 
Connecticut, and the Iroquois was planned against 
Montreal by the former route selected, up the 
Hudson, along the waters of Lake George and Lake 
Champlain, and down the Richelieu. The failure 
of the former through the cowardice and stupidity 
of the English leaders, after they had sailed into 
the mouth of the great river, entailed the abandon- 
ment of the latter, which consisted of some 2,300 
men, before it passed the head of Lake Champlain. 
There soon followed the Treaty of Utrecht (Map 
14), whose American arrangements should be in- 
dicated on the second map. 

That the fighting in America had but a loose 
connection with that in Europe is illustrated by 
the fact that Spanish ships, using St. Augustine 
as a base, had raided the Carolina settlements on 
the Edisto (Map 7b) and the Scotch colony near 
Beaufort (Map lib), and that, before the War of 
the Spanish Succession had been declared, the 
governor of Florida had planned to drive the 
English from the whole disputed district (Map 
12). The Carolinians, being warned, beat off their 
foes in a battle on the Flint (Map lib) and this 
success encouraged them to attack St. Augustine, 
in 1702, by expeditions on land and sea. But 
though the town itself was destroyed, they could 
not muster enough artillery to smash down the 
fort, and returned with little of significance ac- 
complished. In 1703, to atone for this disappoint- 
ment, the English made their way in force from 
Charleston through the woods to some fortified 
settlements about eighty miles northwest of St. 
Augustine, and destroyed them. The Spaniards of 
St. Augustine retaliated three years later by joining 
with a French fleet from Martinique in an attack 
on Charleston ; but, though wasted by disease, the 



citizens drove off the invaders and, indeed, made 
many French and Spanish prisoners. 

The Spanish again raided the Edisto region in 
1727, continuing to urge the Yemassees against 
the English, as they had in 1715 (Map Study No. 
8 ) . Likewise, it was before the ' ' War of Jenkins 's 
Ear" had been announced in America that the 
Spaniards attacked the English on Amelia Island 
(Map 28). The safety of the southern frontier 
now rested with the buffer colony of Georgia and 
its organizer. General Oglethorpe. In November, 
1739, he directed an attack by land and sea on the 
capital of the Spanish province, which was a com- 
plete failure. But when the Spanish governor, 
in 1642, sailed against him, he won a small naval 
victory near Fort William, and shortly afterward 
by an ingenious ruse scared away 5,000 men mov- 
ing on Frederica (Map lib). 

Meanwhile, in the period of truce that followed 
the Peace of Utrecht, the French and English 
continued their diplomatic contest for the Iroquois 
support. The former, to bar one door to the West 
and to strengthen their prestige among the Sene- 
cas, set up a new fort at Niagara in 1721 (Map 
13), while Burnet, the enterprising governor of 
New York, in 1726, fortified the trading post at 
Oswego, lying, as the map demonstrates, within the 
region claimed by France and commanding the 
Ontario-Mohawk route from Fort Frontenac to 
the English settlements. The French soon an- 
swered with Fort Frederic at Crown Point, pro- 
tecting Montreal and menacing New York. But 
the most important fortress was at Louisburg, be- 
gun in 1720, at the little fishing town of Cape 
Breton Island (Map 14). This, second only to 
Quebec in strength, was especially annoying to 
New England as a base for privateers and for 
raids upon cod fisheries, almost as important to 
them as the fur trade was to Canada. When, in 
1745, the European War of the Austrian Succession 
had made regular the fighting in America, these 
colonies gathered all their strength and, aided by 
an English fleet, set out from Boston. They retook 
Canseau, at the eastern point of Nova Scotia, 
whose seizure by the French had been the immedi- 
ate provocation of their enterprise, and then sailed 
on to Louisburg itself, which, after a siege, to 



123 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



everyone 's astonishment, they captured. But their 
satisfaction was soon marred by the restoration of 
the fortresses in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 
1748. 

Our maps have indicated the disputed claims as 
to the land beyond the AUeghanies (Maps 12 and 
14), Those of the English were restated from the 
early charters, Virginia's of 1609 being most in- 
clusive (Map Study No. 5) ; the French claims, 
based on exploration, were not so valid for the 
upper Ohio country as for the region farther west 
(Map Study No. 4). By the middle of the 
eighteenth century English traders had penetrated 
to such Indian settlements as Logstown, seventeen 
miles down the Ohio River; Piekawillany, on the 
upper waters of the Miami, near the site of modern 
Piqua (Map 28b), and Sandusky on Lake Erie 
(Map 16) ; and by underselling their rivals they 
acquired some prestige. But the French with their 
single energetic government in Quebec, actively 
imperialistic and unchecked by any popular as- 
sembly, were better fitted to strike for this fair 
countiy of woods and rolling prairies. They had 
but 60,000 people, while the English numbered 
over 1,500,000; but, as we have observed, they 
were 60,000 servants of the French Empire, and 
more effective than the vastly greater population 
of democratic home builders, concerned with local 
liberties. They had established soldiers, priests, 
and traders at ports such as Detroit (Map 14), 
which, founded a half century before, had lately 
come to boast a thousand whites; Fort Miami, 
near the mouth of the Maumee (Map 15b) ; Vin- 
cennes, in 1735 ; and Fort Ouiatanon, in 1719, on 
the Wabash. The valley of the Ohio demanded at- 
tention. "If the English should seize it," says 
Parkman,^ "they would sever the chain of posts 
and cut French America asunder. If the French 
held it and intruded themselves along its eastern 
limits they would shut their rivals between the 
Alleghanies and the sea, control all the tribes of 
the West, and turn them, in case of war, against 
the English borders — a frightful and unsupport- 
able scourge." 

In 1749 the French governor sent Celeron de 
Bienville to take possession of the region by bury- 

1 Montcalm and Wolfe (Boston, 1884), vol. i, p. 40. 



ing engraved lead plates at the confluence of 
streams and nailing sheets of tin, emblazoned with 
the royal arms, to trees conspicuously situated. 
He landed near the site of modern Westfield on 
Lake Erie, made his way eight miles over a ridge 
to Lake Chautauqua (Map 13), and thence by its 
outlet to the Allegheny, considered by the French 
as part of the Ohio, which they called La Belle 
Riviere.' Along this stream he proceeded to the 
mouth of the Great Miami (Map 29b), up which 
he went, and, crossing to the IMaumee, returned 
to Lake Erie. Occupation followed. The land- 
ing for the Chautauqua portage was rocky and 
dilScult, and the next expedition found a better 
route from Presq' Isle, now Erie (Map 15b), to 
French Creek (Map 13), twenty-one miles away, 
where Fort Le Boeuf was built, in 1753, on the 
site of modern Waterford. At the juncture of 
French Creek and the Allegheny, the following 
j'ear Fort Venango (now Franklin) was set up. 
Forts Toronto and La Presentation had already 
been built, in 1749, to hold the Indians about Lake 
Ontario. It was clear that they soon would occupy 
the strategic point at which the Allegheny joined 
the Monongahela to form the Ohio. 

Meanwhile the English had not been entirely 
idle. Their method of expansion was not by forts 
and mission stations, or by lead plates and stand- 
ards, but by actual settlement on the soil; and 
in 1749 two land companies were formed of Eng- 
lishmen and colonists. The Ohio Company, made 
up mostly of Virginians, obtained a grant of 500,- 
000 acres on the river between the Monongahela 
and the Great Kanawha (Map 17), on considera- 
tion that they settle seven hundred families within 
fourteen years. Pennsylvania, determining to cir- 
cumvent their southern neighbors, filed rival peti- 
tions and organized rival expeditions. Reference 
to Map Study No. 7 will recall that the land about 
the headwaters of the Ohio was claimed by both 
these colonies. The companies sent competing 
agents into the West, and the Indians, believing 
tales of each against the other, came to give even 
more confidence to the French. 

1 The French name for this stream, La EiviJre aux 
BcEufg, or the River of Buffaloes, reminds us that the 
bison at that time ranged as far east as parts of New 
York and Pennsylvania. 



124 



HAEPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Several of the Virginia governors had consid- 
ei'ed making good the western claims of that pro- 
vince; in 1716 Governor Spotswood had said, "We 
should attempt to make some settlements on ye 
lakes, and at the same time possess ourselves of 
those passes of the great mountains which are nec- 
essary to preserve a communication with such 
settlements." It was Governor Dinwiddie who, 
in 1753, sent young Major Washington, then 
twenty-one years old, to warn oif the French. 
Starting from Will's Creek, or Cumberland (Map 
15b), which the Ohio Company had made a trad- 
ing base, he passed through the ridges and inter- 
vening meadows of the Alleghanies to the Llonon- 
gahela (Map 17), and the Ohio to Logstown. 
Thence he went across the country to Venango 
where some French officers were spending the 
winter preparing the materials for a fort, and then 
to Fort Le Bceuf, hearing nothing but the boasts 
of the widening dominion of the French. The 
following year, after he had reported, he was 
sent with a small command to take charge of a 
fort at the forks of the Ohio, which the Ohio 
Company had begun. At Will's Creek he learned 
that the French had been before him and built 
Fort Duquesne, but, pressing on, he fought a vic- 
torious skirmish with a party of the enemy just 
beyond the mountains. He then erected Fort 
Necessity (Map 15b) at this place; but here, on 
July 4th, he was attacked and beaten by a superior 
force. 

Dinwiddie 's pleas brought an English force to 
America under Gen. Edward Braddock, who was 
to take the "offensive defensive"; and at a con- 
ference of governors at Alexandria (Map 30), a 
plan was unfolded. Besides Oswego, which the 
British had held since 1726, the four gates to 
Canada were to be secured. That to the Ohio 
Valley, at Fort Duquesne, Braddock was himself 
to take. Governor Shirley was to strengthen the 
fort at Oswego, and then move on Niagara. Col. 
WiUiam Johnson, the New York Indian Agent, 
was to take Crown Point. Lt.-Col. Robert Monck- 
ton was to drive the enemy from Fort Beausejour 
on the northern arm of the Bay of Fimdy (Map 
16), which may be indicated on the continental 
map. These key points were aU on ground claimed 



by the English ; but French occupation had weak- 
ened the claim. 

In early summer Braddock led out the first 
British military command that ever penetrated 
a wilderness, followed close to Washington's for- 
mer route, and fell at Fort Duquesne before the 
experienced French bushfighters leading the 
American red men, the most formidable forest 
warriors the world had ever seen. The frontier 
was terror-stricken by this tragedy, and many rude 
stockades were built along the eastern mountains 
in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. 

Shirley's and Johnson's men rendezvoused at 
Albany. The Indian leader took about two thou- 
sand farmers and Mohawks to the shores of Lac 
St. Saerement, which, with the instinct of a cour- 
tier, he renamed Lake George, and there at a 
fortified position in a wooded swamp, caUed Fort 
William Henry, after one of the king 's grandsons, 
he beat off a French force that had come from 
Montreal. Shirley cut his way to Oswego with 
three regiments of colonials, but, because of diffi- 
culties in transportation through the wilderness, 
the prospect of the winter storms, and the present 
menace of the French across the lake, his forces 
got no farther, and dwindled by disease to a small 
remnant. 

The fourth objective of this quadrilateral cam- 
paign. Fort Beausejour, lay in a country where the 
French inhabitants annoyed the British govern- 
ment.^ HaUfax had been founded a half dozen 
years before, and four thousand colonists brought 
from England as a coimterpoise to Louisburg. 
But the old French settlers made known their 
resentment in many ways, and, though professedly 
neutral, aided the French in Fort Beausejour, 
which threatened the English to the west. Monck- 
ton's force made its way from Boston, easily cap- 
tured this clumsy work, and renamed it Fort 
Cumberland, after the king's brother. They had 
isolated Louisburg ; but the ruling power was not 
patient. The habitants, who refused to be sub- 
ordinate to the British, especially in Grand Pre 
(Map 14), were now deported to* the number of 



125 



1 The boundaries of the land transferred in 1713 were 
very vague and both sides claimed what is now New 
Brunswick and upper Maine. 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



six thousand, and allowed to find their way, pos- 
sibly to Cape Breton Island, or, like Evangeline, 
to Louisiana. 

England and France declared formal war in the 
spring of 1756 ; we have seen that frontier fighting 
was regarded as somewhat beyond the law of na- 
tions, and, like that of privateers, continued in 
times of peace. Shirley was intrigued out of the 
command which had been left by Braddock, and 
his successor, the Earl of Loudoun, was so ineffec- 
tive that the new French leader, Montcalm, crossed 
from Fort. Frontenac to what is now called Sack- 
ett's Harbor (Map 28), and, dragging his cannon 
overland, easily took Oswego. The following year, 
with French regulars, Canadian militiamen, and 
a heterogeneous force of Indians, he came up the 
Richelieu-Champlain route to Crown Point and the 
new work at Tieonderoga, and then by land and 
water to the destruction of Fort "William Henry. 
The outpost of the English now became Fort Ed- 
ward (Map 18a) on the upper waters of the Hud- 
son, which Johnson had built two years before to 
control this much-disputed land. This frontier 
region, from the Mohawk to Lake George and Lake 
Champlain, saw far more drilling and fighting 
from 1609 to 1778 than any other part of 
America. 

"When Pitt came to power, in 1757, the war 
ceased to be a struggle for certain limited rights 
and places in the world, and became an unlimited 
war for the final destruction of the French Em- 
pire, involving, of course, its complete expulsion 
from America. First-class generals were now sent 
to America; Amherst and "Wolfe, and Admiral 
Boscawen, in 1758, took tlie "impregnable" fort- 
ress of Louisburg, which was soon afterward de- 
stroyed and disappeared from history. Abercrom- 
bie misled a gallant army to defeat before Tieon- 
deroga, but Col. John Bradstreet somewhat offset 
this disgrace by taking a force of provincials and 
Indians up the ]\Iohawk and to the site of Oswego, 
whence he crossed the lake, captured and destroyed 
old Fort Frontenac (Map 13), and all the near-by 
shipping, thus seizing the Ontario gateway and 
weakening the French hold on Niagara. 

The Pennsylvania frontier had suffered through 
the indifference of the Quaker Assembly, but, after 



sundry losses. Governor Morris had, in 1756, sent 
Col. John Armstrong with a force of Scotch-Irish 
borderers to demolish a nest of savages on the 
Allegheny, between Forts "Venango and Duquesne. 
His success explains the name of Armstrong Coun- 
ty, and suggests what Pennsylvania might have 
done had its government been active. Now, in 

1758, General Forbes, with twelve hundred High- 
landers and many militiamen, struck out across 
the mountains to Fort Bedford (Map 15b), where 
he was joined by Washington, who had led a 
force from Cumberland. The army now pushed 
forward by way of Fort Ligonier to Fort Du- 
quesne, where a Aictory wiped out the stain of 
Braddock 's defeat and, in the words of Parkman, 
"opened the Great "West to English enterprise, 
took from France half her savage allies, and re- 
lieved the western borders of the scourge of In- 
dian war.'"^ The French were now distinctly on 
the defensive. 

Pitt had planned a triple attack on Canada, all 
concentrating on Quebec. "Wolfe, with Admiral 
Saunders in support, was to lead up the St. Law- 
rence a command composed in part of New Eng- 
landers, recruited in great numbers and at hea^y 
cost to the colonies ; Amherst, with a larger army, 
was to take Tieonderoga and Crown Point and 
march to IMontreal. Colonel Prideaux was to 
transport about 5,000 men from Oswego along 
Lake Ontario to Fort Niagara, which reduced, he 
was to join Amherst and move with him to merge 
all forces in a final stroke against the citadel of 
New France. Prideaux 's errand was accomplished 
and Amherst was successful, but the Lake Cham- 
plain campaign consumed so much time that "V\''olfe 
was forced to act alone. The British na\y had 
so closed the sea to reinforcement and supply that 
the town was in hard straits, and on September 13, 

1759, the French succumbed upon the Plains of 
Abraham, just west of Quebec. Canada had fallen, 
though the French attempted the following year 
to retake their city, till driven off by English 
ships. In September, 1760, General Amherst, 
commanding 1 7,000 men, took the last stronghold, 
Montreal, and a general capitulation was con- 



1 Montcalm and Wolfe, vol. ii, p. 162. 



126 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



eluded. The final arrangement can be indicated 
on the map (Map 16). 

The frontiersmen of New York and Pennsyl- 
vania were not the only ones who saw the reddened 
tomahawk. The Cherokees, in 1759, proved un- 
reliable allies of England, and, believing they had 
grievances, went on the warpath along the Caro- 
lina border. To provide against such a possibility, 
the governor of South Carolina had built Fort 
Prince George in what is now the western corner 
of the state, and Foi't Loudoun (Map 15b) was 
likewise soon erected on the Little Tennessee. 
Partisan warfare, with cruel attacks and reprisals, 
waged through this country for two years, train- 
ing soldiers who were to lead similar bands against 
the British twenty years later. Several expedi- 
tions, including regulars and provincials from 
Virginia and North Carolina, made war from a 
base on the Congarees, near modern Columbia 
(Map 59a), and finally Colonel Grant, furnished 
by Amherst with a force of Highlanders and colon- 
ists and with Chickasaw and Creek allies, freed 
the back settlements of the Cherokee menace. 

A far more serious Indian war was that organ- 
ized by a chief of the Ottawas, an Algonquian 
tribe. When, after the capitulation of 1760, Maj. 
Robert Rogers with his two hundred rangers, on 
his way west to receive the French posts, put in 
at the mouth of Cuyahoga, now Cleveland (Map 
28), he was met by this savage leader, demanding 
that this intrusion be explained. Rogers seemed 



to satisfy him and went on to take possession of 
Detroit, Forts Miami and Ouiatanon (Map 13), 
and, the following year, the forts at Michilli- 
mackinac, Sault Ste. Marie, Green Bay, and St. 
Joseph. But cautiously and thoroughly Pontiac 
was enlisting all the western tribes into a con- 
spiracy, preaching with the fervor of a prophet 
and planning with the skill of an accomplished 
strategist. Parkman has described his secret 
service, his smooth and treacherous professions, 
and his cruel thoroughness ; we need here only to 
notice that in 1763 Forts Sanduslcy (Map 15b), 
St. Joseph, Miami, Ouiatanon, Le Boeuf, Venango, 
and Presq' Isle, and the forts at Bedford and 
Carlisle, Pennsylvania (Map 34), fell into the 
Indians' hands. Detroit and Fort Ligonier (Map 
lob) succeeded in holding out till help arrived. 
Bradstreet's journey to relieve the former is 
recorded in our map, and also that of Col. Henry 
Bouquet, who, with a small force, raised the siege 
of Fort Ligonier, fought the famous battle of 
Bushy Run, and saved the garrison at Fort Pitt. 
These victories sealed the fate of Pontiac 's con- 
spiracy, and the following year Bouquet went on 
to the Muskingum country to receive the submis- 
sion of the tribes and 200 captives whom the In- 
dians had taken. Thereafter there was no im- 
portant frontier fighting until the Revolution, 
except that which Lord Dunmore, the governor of 
Virginia, carried on in 1774, against the Cherokees 
along the Great Kanawha River. 



MAP STUDY No. 11 

AMERICANS FOR AMERICA: FROM IRRITATION" 

INDEPENDENCE 



TO 



Text : Bassett, pp. 130-132, 161-181 ; Howard, Preliminaries of the Bevolution; Van Tyne, American 

Revolution, pp. 3-49. 
Maps : The World ; Eastern United States. 



DURING the ten years of war in America 
begun at Fort Necessity and ended at Bushy 
Run, the population grew larger by a third, ac- 
cording to the customary rate of increase for a 
century past, and in 1763 stood above one and 
three-quarter millions. Contemplating their huge 



war debt, the Ministers at home listened with 
interest to the tales of British soldiers and officials 
as to how the colonies had prospered, and resolved 
to impress them with a sense of imperial obliga- 
tion. 
Let us imagine ourselves seated beside the hard- 



127 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



•working Chancellor of the Exchequer, George 
Grenville, in the winter of 1764, with a map of 
the world spread out before us. On the American 
continent we indicated the territorial settlement oi 
the year before, reflecting upon its possible conse- 
quences as we extend England 's color north across 
the Lakes and the St. Lawrence. Possibly Gren- 
ville has heard comments like that of Vergennes, 
the French diplomat, that he was "persuaded 
England would ere long repent of having removed 
the only check that could keep her colonies in 
awe." He formulates a plan to maintain soldiers 
in America, to be supported by a stamp tax, not 
only for protection against the Indians, but against 
a possible return of the French. Grenville is 
vaguely aware that the region beyond the Alle- 
ghanies has some possibilities, for he has, no doubt, 
heard of the proposal, made by some speculators 
the previous autumn, to erect a colony of great 
area along the Mississippi, to be kno^vn as Char- 
lotiana (Map 17), and of the petition of Colonel 
Washington and others for a Mississippi Com- 
pany to settle the land about the mouth of the 
Ohio, and the plan of New York business men 
to develop a region overlapping both the others. 

But the Ministry desires to quiet the fears of 
the Indians, who are rei^orted to be on the war- 
path (Map Study No. 10) to protect their hunting 
grounds from English settlement. On this account 
the Ministers have issued, in October, 1763, a pro- 
clamation closing to all white men, excepting 
licensed traders, "for the present" all land "be- 
yond the heads or sources of any of the rivers 
which fall into the Atlantic Ocean from the west 
or northwest. ' ' They originally expected by care- 
ful surveying to reserve the southern Ohio coun- 
try, but the fierceness with which Pontiac has 
made war has led them to select a well-marked 
natural boundary, and we can easily trace the line 
from Chaleurs Bay to the St. Marys River (Map 
16). The proclamation, as if in compensation, 
mentions the advantages, including the protection 
of English law, which settlers may enjoy in Nova 
Scotia, the two Floridas, and Quebec. But the 
inclusion of the last among those coming under the 
legal system, some may be wise enough to see, will 



128 



have to be corrected later.^ Perhaps the Chan- 
cellor notices that no pro'vision has been made for 
governing the old French settlements along the 
ilississippi and the Wabash. Georgia, now be- 
ginning rapidly to grow in population, has been 
extended by the line to the St. Marys, yet probably 
Grenville knows that this southernmost colony of 
the old thirteen has determined to claim all west 
to the Mississippi from the sources of the Savan- 
nah and St. Marys.^ 

But the Chancellor's mind is not chiefly occu- 
pied with the subject of boundaries, but with that 
of revenue. If on our map we indicate the region 
north of Mason and Dixon's line (Map 37) as 
"farm colonies," and that to the south as "plan- 
tation colonies," we represent Grenville 's opinion 
of them respectively as "useless" and "useful" 
as far as English customs and trade are concerned. 
He thinlvs much of the trade of New England and 
we can easily show with lines upon the map the 
course of his concern. Ships laden with staves, 
lumber, and provisions put out from these towns — 
for example, Newport — to Newfoundland, where 
some of the foodstuffs are exchanged for ' ' refuse ' ' 
fish (the European Catholics get the better grades). 
These are taken to the West Indies for the slaves ; 
and the return is made with cargoes of molasses, 
which can be more cheaply distilled into rum in 
New England than in the Caribbean islands, where 
all energy goes into the fields of cane. Some of 
the rum is consumed at home, especially among 
the fishermen, but some is carried past the West 
Indies, on the next voyage, to the Guinea coast of 
Africa, from Sierra Leone to the River Congo 
(Map 4b), where it plays an ugly part in the kid- 
naping of negroes, and these are carried to the 
sugar plantations for sale. Some of the high 
profits thus realized are invested in cargoes of 
dye woods, cotton, tobacco, sugar, cocoa, etc., 
which the Yankee skippers take to England, for 
other European ports have long been closed to 
these commodities by the Act of 1660 and others. 
Here they further improve their fortune by taking 

1 In 1774. 

2 The line of 1767, which placed the West Florida 
boundary north nearly to the mouth of the Tazoo, 32° 28', 
north latitude, cut off some of Georgia '8 claim beyond 
the Appalachicola-Chattahoochee Eiver. 



HAEPEE'S ATLAS OF AMEEICAN HISTOEY 



on good loads of English manufactured goods, and 
put sail for home.^ 

What annoys the Chancellor is that the New 
Englanders do not import their molasses solely 
from Jamaica, or Barbadoes, and the English Lee- 
ward Islands (Map 12), but also, and more large- 
ly, from Guadaloupe, Martinique, and other foreign 
possessions in the Caribbean ; and, most important, 
they generally evade the high duty of sixpence 
a gallon, imposed in 1733. Grenville even now is 
preparing soon, in March, to introduce a biU drop- 
ping the duty to threepence, but with provision 
for rigid enforcement. "We leave him, therefore, 
unwittingly about to precipitate a crisis that wiU 
disrupt the old British Empire. 

The colonies were not internally at peace during 
the years that followed. On a more detailed map 
we can locate the upper waters of the Cape Fear 
River (Map 19a), where the Scotch and Scotch- 
Irish settlers felt themselves neglected in protec- 
tion, but not in taxes; without due voice in the 
legislature, these "Regulators" unsuccessfully 
made war, from 1767 to 1771, against Governor 
Tryon and his "tidewater" supporters. Inter- 
colonial disputes may be illustrated by that be- 
tween Virginia and Pennsylvania over the Fort 
Pitt region (Map 16). In 1774, Lord Dunmore, 
governor of the former province, led out a force 
to occupy these valleys, but the outbreak of an 
Indian war on the Kanawha induced him to take 
it southwest along the Ohio to that region (Map 
Study No. 10). 

No one had paid much heed to the Proclamation 
Line of 1763, as it was considered temporary. 
North Carolina settlers had moved to the valley 
of the Holston (Map 19b), and, defying Governor 
Tryon, had set up a government for themselves 
known as the Wataugua Association. After Boone 
and others had made a number of journeys along 
a trace which became famous as the Wilderness 
Road, and through Cumberland Gap (Map 34), 



1 Many ships stopped, en route from the Caribbean, at 
the "Wine Islands," the Madeiras and Canaries (Map 4b). 



Jiidge Richard Henderson acquired a huge tract 
from the Indians and attempted, in 1775, to erect 
a proprietary government of "Transylvania" 
(Map 17). But dissensions and the opposition of 
North Carolina and Virginia prevented his suc- 
cess and these far-western colonists remained un- 
der the jurisdiction of the older governments. 
Some time before, prominent speculators, among 
them Franklin, had obtained from England, in 
1768, the great Vandalia grant in what is now 
West Virginia and northeastern Kentucky. In this 
fashion the land rights of Virginia were disre- 
garded, but a number of companies were being 
formed by that colony's consent as well as that of 
England. This was the situation when, in 1774, 
Quebec was extended to the Ohio and the expan- 
sion of the coastal colonies curbed apparently for 
all time. 

From his reading the student should be able to 
locate, with date, on the outline map, the place of 
meeting of the Stamp Act Congress, inferring 
from its geographical position which large section 
of the colonies was more interested in united pro- 
test to England. If he recalls that opposition to 
the Sugar Act was closely bound up with that to 
the stamps, this will help in explanation. If he 
vnU. indicate, with dates, the location of the First 
and Second Continental Congresses, he will notice 
some apparent shifting of the center of interest. 
By marking with a black C those colonies which 
early appointed intercolonial Committees of Cor- 
respondence, he wiU gain some notion of the com- 
parative degree of feeling up and down the sea- 
board in 1773 and 1774. The Gaspe affair, which 
had a relation to the origin of these committees, 
wiU be better understood if its location is regarded 
in connection with the trade routes recently drawn 
upon the world map. What ports refused the 
tea? And what was the chief port of Massa- 
chusetts during 1774 and 1775 ? 

By the use of Roman niunerals, rate the colonies 
and the cities in 1770 according to the following 
estimates taken from the United States Census 
Report of 1900 : 



129 



HAEPEK'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



N^. H 


60,000 


Mass 


399,000 


E. I 


55,000 


Conn 


175,000 


N. T.(inc. Vt.). 


185,000 


N. J 


110,000 


Pa 


250,000 


Del 


25,000 


Md 


200,000 




450,000 


N. C 


230,000 


S. C 


140,000 


Ga 


26,000 



Salem 5,000 

Boston 15,520 

Newport 9,000 

New York 21,000 

Philadelphia 28,000 

Baltimore 5,000 

Charleston 10,000 



2,205,000 

Draw the frontier line of the colonies at the be- 
ginning of revolutionary movement (Map 16). 
Then, using the following data, by a system of 
shading, with key, indicate the method by which 
representatives were selected for the First Con- 
tinental Congress, noting its decidedly irregular 
and revolutionary character. 

N. H. . By Provincial Congress 

Mass.. " Lower (Popular) House of Legislature 

E. I. . . " Legislature 

Conn.. " " (with help of Committees of 

Correspondence) 
N. Y.. By City and (some) County Delegates 



N. J.. ' 


' Provincial 


Congress 


Pa.... ' 


' Legislature 


(Unicameral) 


Del.... ' 


' Provincial 


Congress 


Md. . . ' 


t (t 


it 


Va.... ' 


t (< 


(t 


N. C. . ' 


( (( 


II 


B.C.. ' 


' Lower (P( 


)pular) House 



proving nominees of a mass meeting) 
Ga.... Unrepresented 

With the aid, when necessary, of Jameson's 
Dictionary of United States History, Appleton's, 
Lamb's, or the National biographical encyclopedia, 
or a general encyclopedia, show by initials the 
home colonies of the following leaders, mentioned 
by Bassett in his Chapter VIII : Samuel Adams, 
Christopher Gadsden, Patrick Henry, Thomas 
Hutchinson, Benjamin Franklin, James Otis, John 
Dickinson, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, John 
Jay, James Duane, Edward Kutledge, Joseph 
Galloway, CadwaUader Colden, John Hancock, 
and Josiah Quincy. Also the following, men- 
tioned by Carl Becker in his Beginnings of the 
American People, Chapter VI: Jonathan May- 
hew, Daniel Dulany, R. H. Lee, Joseph Warren, 
and Samuel Seabury. 



MAP STUDY No. 12 

THE EEVOLUTIONARY WAR 

Text: Bassett, pp. 183, 188-214; John Fiske, American Revolution, vol. i, pp. 147-170, 198-238, 249- 
252, 258-276, 280-339; vol. ii, pp. 59-66, 75-81, 104-115, 149-157, 163-193, 244-290, C. H. 
Van Tyne, American Revolution, chaps, vii, viii, x, xvi, xviii. 

Maps: Middle Atlantic States; South Atlantic States. 



THE American Revolutionary War was fought 
for seven years and over a great extent of 
territory. It is true that, judged by modem 
standards, but few men were employed and little 
money was spent ; yet heroism is not measured by 
statistics. The campaigns of Washington and his 
generals, with their record of sacrifice and deter- 
mination, have become a part of our national 
tradition, and the pleasures of literature and 



travel, as well as a true understanding of our 
national beginnings, are enhanced by a knowledge 
of them. The most natural and effective method 
of gaining such an understanding would include 
the use of outline maps. 

In the previous map studies the data have been 
carefullj^ suggested and the method of presenta- 
tion often prescribed. But by this time the student 
should realize the possibilities of the map, and, 



130 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF, AMERICAN HISTORY 



with such a subject as this, be able to devise and 
execute a complete and intelligible illustration by 
himself. 

Besides the routes of march, year by year, there 
are many other things that can well be noted, and 
the final product will be a test of originality no 
less than thoroughness. The maps of the campaigns 
(Maps 18a, 18b, 18c, and 19b) will aid, but can be 
improved and elaborated on the larger outline 
maps available to the student. He will find a good 
concise summary of the war in Bassett's History, 
but, if time can possibly be found for about two 
hundred and fifty pages, he will be richly repaid 
in reading John Piske's American Revolution in 
the citations above. He will be unlike most Amer- 
icans if his pulse does not quicken as he follows 
this clear and vigorous narrative, even though 



many interesting episodes, like the frontier war- 
fare and Arnold's treason, are omitted in our ref- 
erence. But there are many other good general ac- 
counts, such as that in Van Tyne's American 
Revolution. 

On the world map used in Map Study No. 11 
may now be indicated the site of John Paul Jones's 
adventures ; the European nations fighting against 
England in 1780, those neutral, and those belong- 
ing to the League of Armed Neutrality which ob- 
jected to England's maritime code; and the final 
residence of many Loyalists or Tories who emi- 
grated at the close of the war — Nova Scotia, New 
Brunswick, Upper Ontario (north of the lake), the 
Bahamas, Jamaica, and the Leeward Islands, as 
well as England. 



MAP STUDY No. 13 

ORGANIZING A NATION: FROM JEALOUSY TO CONFIDENCE 

Text : Bassett, pp. 226-254 ; McLaughlin, The Confederation and the Constitution. 
Map: Eastern United States. 



IN the peace negotations at Paris, in 1782 and 
1783, the Americans expected to get at least 
all the British lands south of what had formerly 
been acknowledged as French Canada (Map 14) 
as far as the Floridas. But John Jay had reason 
to believe that the French allies, represented by 
Count Vergennes, were recommending an arrange- 
ment which might limit the new nation to the 
Atlantic coastal region (Map 20). Partly on this 
account the American commissioners negotiated 
separately with England and obtained a favorable 
boundary (Map 21a), though one which, as we 
shall see, gave rise later to disputes, notably in 
the case of Maine and West Florida. 

During the year immediately following the Rev- 
olution the name "United States" was more a 
prophecy than the description of a fact. Among 
other causes of misunderstanding were overlap- 
ping land claims. New Hampshire had resigned 
her claims to Vermont in 1780, but New York re- 



tained hers /or another decadeT^d the^Green 
Mountain boys had many a violent altercation 
with "York-state" sheriffs and surveyors (Maps 
20 and 21a). Adventurers from Connecticut, the 
mother state of many emigrants, had early settled 
along the east branch of the Susquehannah in north- 
eastern Pennsylvania (Map 16), and until 1790 
Connecticut supported their claims to the jurisdic- 
tion of the Wyoming Valley, against the law of 
the Philadelphia legislature. The so-called "Pen- 
namite Wars" were the result. Beyond the Ap- 
palachians there were conflicting claims, which 
were based on colonial charters (Map 21a), but 
these, fortunately, were ceded to the nation, as 
may be indicated with dates. Virginia, desiring 
to reward her soldiers, retained a large tract be- 
tween the Scioto Eiver and the Little Miami, 
which runs some twenty-five miles east of and 
parallel to the Great Miami (Map 28b). 
New York had claimed most of Ohio and north- 



131 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



em Kentucky, as may be shown with, a heavy 
dotted line, because those lands were occupied by 
tribes acknowledging the overlordship of the Iro- 
quois, but had abandoned this contention in 1780. 
General Sullivan's raid, in 1779, crushed the power 
of the Six Nations and brought about the Treaty 
of Port Stanwix (Map 16), in 1784, by which the 
extinction of the Indian land titles was begun. 
This made of interest to prospective settlers the 
claim of Massachusetts to the western part of New 
York, which she maintained was beyond the line 
of the Duke of York's grant and hence fell within 
her prior right (Map Study No. 6). This was 
settled in 1786 by giving to New York the political 
jurisdiction, and to Massachusetts the fee in the 
land, which was now sold to private speciilators. 
Connecticut had sent out settlements to southern 
New York as well as to Pennsylvania, but finally, 
in 1800, she renounced all her claims beyond her 
own acknowledged western limits, giving up even 
her "Western Reserve" along the shore of Lake 
Erie which she had retained after cession of 1786 
(Map 21a). When New York yielded her rights 
in the West in 1780, she placed her own boundary 
on the meridian of the western end of Lake On- 
tario ; this left outside the ' ' Erie Triangle, ' ' at the 



northwest corner of Pennsylvania. After Connecti- 
cut had ceded her claims in 1786 this was clearly 
in possession of the national government, which 
later disposed of it to Pennsylvania so that that 
state might have a harbor on Lake Erie. 

After reading Bassett, pp. 235-236, indicate 
with the letters P.M. the states where paper money 
wa.s issued, and mark those districts where the 
conflict on this quesiton, in 1786 and 1787, was 
particularly acute. Locate the site of important 
interstate conferences or conventions held in 1785, 
1786, and 1787 (Bassett, pp. 241-242). Using 
Roman niunerals, rank the most populous five 
states, and with a large letter L mark the states 
comprising the "large state group" in the Con- 
vention (Ibid., pp. 243-244). Using Maps 22a 
and 22b, show the distribution of votes on the rati- 
fication of the Constitution. It will be observed 
that, in general, the commercial districts and those 
where large-propertied men desired Federal pro- 
tection against any possible democratic uprising 
(as in South Carolina) were in favor and the small 
farmers opposed. Some frontier districts, like 
western Virginia and Georgia, desired the military 
power of a strong govei'imient to be directed 
against the Indians, 



MAP STUDY No. 14 

THE NEW GOVERNMENT IN ACTION 

Text : Bassett, pp. 256-263, 267-269, 277-282 ; Bassett, Federalist System, pp. 3-41, 56-68, 101-116, 

218-251. 
Map: Eastern United States. 



WE have already noticed (Map Study No. 11) 
that the valleys of the Kentuclvy, the Cum- 
berland, and the upper Tennessee were reached 
by pioneer farmers before the Revolution. Most 
of the settlers had trudged along the Wilderness 
Road from Fort Chiswell (Map 15b), where roads 
from Pennsylvania and from Richmond converged, 
to and through the Cumberland Gap in what is 
now Tennessee not far from the present southwest 
corner of Virginia (Map 34), By the end of 



the war there was available the Tennessee Path, 
starting at the new town of Abingdon (Map 34), 
some seventy miles beyond Fort Chiswell, but 
crossing the headwaters a little south of the Wil- 
derness Road and leading westward to the cabins 
of the settlement foiinded by James Robertson, 
in 1780, as Nashboro (Map 19b), but renamed 
Nashville in 1784.^ This fairly level road was as 

1 The town was named in honor of Gen. Francis Nash, 
a North Carolinian killed in the battle of Gennantown, 



132 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



convenient for the Cumberland settlers as that 
through the Gap for the Kentuckians. The Wa- 
taugua Association (Map 19b and Map Study No. 
11) took advantage of a temporary cession of 
western claims by North Carolina to the nation 
in 1784 to organize a "state of Franklin" and 
apply for admission to the Union; but, on North 
Carolina 's resuming jurisdiction, other westerners 
overthrew Governor Sevier's "state," and Ten- 
nessee, though undeniably restive, continued under 
the eastern state government tiU 1794, when or- 
ganized as a territory. It became a state in 1796, 
four years after Kentucky and five years after 
Vermont. 

We have also observed that the early settlers of 
the West went through the southern mountains, 
but by 1790 another stream had begun to pour 
into the Ohio Valley through Pittsburg, which 
had been laid out as a town in 1764. ' ' Three routes 
met at Pittsburg: one from Philadelphia by the 
west branch of the Susquehanna (Map 19b), a 
forty-mile portage over the divide, and Toby Creek 
to the Allegheny at Kittanning ; a second farther 
south, also from Philadelphia, by the Juniata trib- 
utary to the Susquehanna (Map 34), or by a more 
direct trace known as Forbes Road (Map Study 
No. 10) from Carlisle through Shippensburgh, 
Fort Lyttleton, and Port Bedford (Map 19b), 
and thence by an easy mountain pass to Fort 
Ligonier and on down the Allegheny or across 
a low dividing range to the forks of the Ohio ; and 
a third up the Potomac to Fort Cumberland and 
thence by Braddock's Road over the divide to the 
Youghiogheny (Map 17) on to Redstone Old Fort 
(given as Brownsville on Map 34) on the Mon- 
ongahela."^ 

' ' In our entire region of the Appalachians, ' ' re- 
marks another writer,^ "from the Berkshire HiUs 



1 E. C. Semple, American History and Its Geographic 
Condition, p. 65. If one is desirous of following this de- 
scription in complete detail he will find the map under 
"Pennsylvania" in the Encyclopedia Britanitica quite 
satisfactory. There is an excellent map of the e.arly roads 
to the West in Seymour Dunbar's History of Travel in 
America (Indianapolis, 1915), vol. i, p. 152. The illus- 
trations in this vcork are from a remarkable series of 
rare pictures of ways and means of travel on this conti- 
nent, and are cordially recommended to the student. 

2 A. B. Hulbert, The Paths of Inland Commerce (New 
Haven, 1920), p. 20. 



southward, practically every old-time pathway 
from the seaboard to the trans-Alleghany country 
was occupied by an important railway system, 
with the exception of the Warrior's Trail through 
Cumberland Gap to central Ohio and the High- 
land Trail across southern Pennsylvania, and even 
Cumberland Gap is accessible by rail to-day, and 
a line across southern Pennsylvania was once 
planned and partially constructed, only to be 
killed by jealous rivals." 

The Northwest Territory, organized in 1787, 
may be indicated roughly from the dotted area on 
Map 37. Two settlements had been made almost 
immediately: Marietta (Map 26), by New Eng- 
landers under the Ohio Company, at the mouth 
of the Muskingum and close to Fort Harmar, 
which had been built three years before ; and Cin- 
cinnati, opposite the Licking River, in 1789, by 
John Cleves Symmes, who with a company of 
New Jerseymen had recently bought about a mil- 
lion and a quarter acres lying west from the Great 
Miami River. Chillicothe, the most important 
town of the Virginia military lands (Map Study 
No. 13), was founded in 1796, while a little band 
of Connecticut people under Moses Cleaveland 
began the settlement of Cleveland in the Western 
Reserve in the same year. 

The earliest settlers were harassed by Shawnees 
and Delawares (Map 13 and Map Study No. 7), 
who were encouraged by the British still remain- 
ing in the western posts, Oswego, Fort Niagara, 
Erie, Fort Miami,^ Detroit, Fort Mackinac, and 
others. (Maps 28 and 28b). The Indians on 
their expeditions so plagued the Kentucky frontier 
that many pioneers joined the force of Gen. Josiah 
Harmar, who, in 1790, met the enemy near the 
site of Chillicothe, on the Scioto. He was defeated, 
but the soldiers and settlers eagerly renewed the 
attack the following year under the governor of 
the territory. Gen. Arthur St. Clair. The new 
army of 2,000 men marched from Fort Washing- 
ton (Cincinnati), intending to establish a chain of 
forts from the Ohio to the Maumee. It reached 



133 



1 There were three Fort Miamis: one in what is now 
northern Illinois, one where Port Wayne was later erected, 
and one built at the falls of the Maumee by the British 
in 1794, and which figured in Wayne's battle of Fallen 
Timber. The reference above is to the second. 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



the headwaters of the Wabash, with numbers 
lessened by desertions and detachments to 1,400, 
and there was ambushed and disgracefully routed. 

The frontier, now all but terrorized, awaited 
effective aid from the national government. Forces 
were maintained at Forts Ilarmar and Washing- 
ton, and at Vincennes. In 1792 Anthony Wayne, 
general in chief of the United States army, ar- 
rived in Pittsburg and began drilling a force which 
he led out from Cincinnati the next year. On the 
field of St. Clair's defeat he built Fort Recovery 
(Map 28a), and with his little army, strengthened 
by Kentucky militia, who now arrived, he struck 
north to the Maumee, where he set up Fort De- 
fiance at the mouth of the Au Glaize. He then 
followed down the river to the falls, where the 
British had illegally built a work called Fort 
Miami (a short distance up the Maiunee from 
its mouth), and here Wayne's disciplined troops 
completely defeated the Indians in the battle of 
Fallen Timber, August 20, 1794. Now failing back 
along the road that he had cut, the general pro- 
ceeded to the confluence of the St. Marys and the 
St. Joseph Rivers, where he erected a stockade, 
named in his honor, and then, retiring to the south, 
he made his winter quarters at Greenville. In 
this place was signed the Treaty of Fort Green- 
ville, 1795, running a line east from Fort Recovery 
and finally north to the site of Cleveland, as is 
shown upon our map, beyond which, with the ex- 
ception of the forts, was recognized as belonging to 
the Indians. But our map also makes clear that 
Indian tenure seldom long endured; they parted 
with this land in 1805 and 1807. After the Treaty 
of Fort Greenville the northeastern region was 
settled much more rapidly; the territory was 
di\'ided in 1800 (Map 24), and Ohio, with its 
western boundary rectified, was admitted as a state 
in 1802 (Map 27). 

As the English had egged on the northern In- 
dians, so the Spanish carried on intrigues among 
those of the south, more numerous and hardly less 
formidable. "The warriors of the four great 
southern confederacies — the Cherokees, the Creeks, 
the Chickasaws, and the Choctaws — were estimated 
to be 14,000, giving a total population of about 
70,000. The Chickasaws, inhabiting that portion 



of the present state of Tennessee west of the Ten- 
nessee River, and the Choctaws, dwelling princi- 
pally on the headwaters of the Pearl . . . and 
extending thence to the Mississippi,^ being too far 
from the frontier to be exposed to collision with 
the back settlers, had always been on good terms 
with the Anglo-Americans, and the friendship 
established with those tribes by the treaties of 
Hopewell (1786) still remained unbroken. The 
case was very different with the Cherokees and the 
Creeks, brought into immediate and irritating 
collision with the frontier settlers of the Carolinas 
and Georgia. The Cherokees claimed the Cum- 
berland River as their northern boundarj^ their 
territory embracing the larger portion of the 
present state of Tennessee, with parts also of the 
Carolinas and Georgia. "- 

Neither the whites nor the Indians paid much 
attention to the treaties; the warriors again and 
again attacked Robertson's settlers at NashviUe, 
while by 1789 the Tennesseeans had fought their 
way far into the Cherokee lands, despite the re- 
monstrance of Congress. The Georgians made 
three treaties with the Creeks, in 1783, 1785, and 
1786, yielding them a considerable tract of Creek 
land south and west of the Oconee, which they 
granted as military bounties. But they had no 
right thus to usurp a congressional function ; and 
according to Alexander ]\IcGillivray, the half- 
breed Creek leader, the negotiating Indian chiefs 
had likewise no adequate authority. The savages, 
well armed by the Spaniards, were waging a dev- 
astating war upon the whites at the time the new 
government of the United States was instituted, 
but negotiations begun on the Oconee and con- 
tinued in New York supported the Creek position, 
which the government at Savannah accepted with 
bad grace. In spite of a pension from Congress, 
however, McGillivray, when back in his town (Map 
21b), resumed intrigue with the Spaniards. 

Georgia, in 1794 and 1795, granted to three 
companies the title to the land indicated on our 
]Map 21b, but because the grant was issued under 
influence of corruption the succeeding legislature 



134 



1 Follow Map 15b or 34 for the location of tlie Indians. 

2 Richard Hildreth, History of the United States, Second 
Series (New York, 1851), vol. i, p. 140. 



HAEPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



declared it void. The United States claimed the 
jurisdiction of the land, especially below the lati- 
tude of the Yazoo mouth, where it had acquired 
England's rights in 1783 (Map Study No. 13). 
There were, therefore, three claimants — the com- 
panies, Georgia, and the national government. 
The two latter settled their dispute in 1802, as is 
shown upon our map, and the national govern- 
ment made an arrangement in marking off lands 
for the Indians, which was satisfactory for the 
time, though it left some within the bounds of 
Georgia (Map 39b). The companies' rights as 
against Georgia were upheld by the Supreme 
Court in 1810, and in 1816, after much debate, in 
which the speculators and their friends were de- 
nounced as preying on the government — the so- 
called "Tazoo fraud" — Congress bought their 
claims. The treaty with Spain in 1795 had fixed 
the southern boundary of the United States as the 
31st parallel of latitude (Map 21b) ; in 1798 the 
Mississippi Territory was organized (Map 24) ;and 
shortly after the arrangement of 1802 this was en- 
larged to include aU land to Tennessee (Map 27). 
There were other and even more important ques- 
tions than frontier defense, especially that of 
financial policy. Hamilton, in his desire to 
strengthen American credit in general and to align 
the moneyed men with the central government, 
proposed that the nation assume the debts of the 
states. Those south and west of New Jersey and 
Delaware, except South Carolina, had paid a good 
part of theirs and were, therefore, quite opposed 
to this on economic as well as political grounds. 
On the outline map the vote of July 24, 1790, may 
be indicated with shaded areas from the follow- 



ing data : For — Massachusetts, Connecticut, New 
Jersey, Delaware, South Carolina; against — New 
Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, 
North Carolina, Georgia; evenly divided — New 
York; not in the Union — Rhode Island. The 
student will recognize a connection between this 
question and that of the location of the successive 
capitals of the United States. 

The Excise Law of March 3, 1791, was especially 
resented by the Scotch-Irish farmers of the west- 
ern counties of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North 
Carolina, who were accustomed to convert a part 
of their corn and grain into whisky for easier 
marketing or as a medium of exchange. In Penn- 
sylvania, the inhabitants around Union, Wash- 
ington, and Pittsburg (Map 34) were especially 
disaffected, and in July, 1794, organized them- 
selves against the government agents and com- 
mitted acts of violence. The President, finding 
that the state government did not act, displayed 
the power of the new nation by calling out 15,000 
troops, which needed only to assemble to awe the 
rioters into submission. 

It was charged that the "Whisky Insurrection 
had been fomented by the so-eaUed "Democratic 
Societies, ' ' which had been formed after the arrival 
of Citizen Genet, who landed in Charleston, April, 
1793. Bearing in mind that the vote on the As- 
siunption Bill roughly corresponded to the division 
into Federalists and Jeffersonians, a line tracing 
his route by land to Philadelphia (Map 34) may 
indicate one reason for Genet's confidence in the 
sympathy of America. Would not his impressions 
have been different had he landed at Boston and 
from there journeyed to the capital? 



MAP STUDY No. 15 

AGRAEIANISM AND EXPANSION: ATTENTION TURNING 

TOWARD THE WEST 

Text: Bassett, pp. 288-300, 306-320, 355-357; Channing, Jeffersonian System. 
Map: The United States. 



NO less an authority than John Marshall in- 
forms lis that the Federalists were chiefly 
men with business interests to protect and foster, 
and with accumulated wealth to loan. They fa- 
vored laws and policies that seemed from this 
point of view to sers-e the country, and, being men 
of executive experience and high notions of order, 
they not only built up an efficient government, 
but tended to overemphasize the importance of 
control. This was resented by the self-reliant 
planters and farmers, and especially by those who 
had borrowed money to outfit themselves. By 
drawing lines which represent, in the main, the 
boundaries of the area settled by six or more to 
the square mile, respectively in 1790 and in 1800 
(Map 23a), it will appear that this inland element 
was growing. This restive population complained 
of strong government as savoring of England, and 
admired the French as the modern exemplars of 
liberty and equality. They, therefore, were op- 
posed to war with France, which threatened on 
account of diplomatic insults recently received, 
and bitterly complained of the Alien and Sedi- 
tion laws, passed by Federalists to curb French 
propaganda. 

In the vote on the proposed repeal of these ob- 
noxious laws in the House of Representatives, 
February 25, 1799, all New England, including the 
District of Maine, voted against, except Vermont, 
equally divided, and three small portions of Mas- 
sachusetts — Cape Cod; the district southeast of 
the bend in the Merrimac River; and Berkshire 
County, a strip along the New York border. Like- 
wise New York, except the southern part, was for 
the laws, and New Jersey, Delaware, and Mary- 
land, but for the region from Baltimore south to 
the Potomac. The rest of the nation favored re- 



peal, with the following exceptions : the vicinity of 
Philadelphia; the districts on the lower Siisque- 
hannah ; the Virginia piedmont ; the southern por- 
tion of the Yadkin Valley in North Carolina (Map 
24), and a strip along the northern bank of the 
Savannah. Now if the student, after illustrat- 
ing this division, will represent by the letters J 
and A, as initials of the candidates, the vote by 
states in 1800 (Map 23b), he will observe a corre- 
lation, and will also note how far the agrarian 
interest favored Jefferson. 

So marked was the preference of the new Presi- 
dent, on his part, that the nation was not surprised 
to hear, in his inaugural address, an expression of 
his views of the comparative importance of the 
farmer and the merchant, desiring "the encour- 
agement of agriculture, and of commerce as its 
handmaid." The location of the homes of Jef- 
ferson's cabinet officers shows the regions where 
he desired to recognize or to encourage support: 
James Madison, Secretary of State, at Montpelier, 
near Orange Court House (Map 57b) ; Albert 
Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury, at Geneva, 
Pennsylvania, on the east bank of the Monon- 
gahela, a few miles from the state b6iindary (Map 
24) ; Henry Dearborn, Secretary of War, near 
Augusta, Maine, then part of Massachusetts 
(Frontispiece) ; Robert Smith, Secretary of the 
Navy, at Baltimore (Map 25), and Levi Lincoln, 
Attorney-General, at Worcester, Massachusetts 
(Map 16). The President's own home at Char- 
lottesville, Virginia (Map 19a), of course, should 
also be indicated. 

Our western settlers, who by 1800 had spread 
along the Ohio almost to the Cumberland, and who 
were rapidly increasing in Tennessee, were often 
irritated that their doorway to the world, New 



136 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Orleans, was in the hands of the king of Spain. 
When, in 1802, the right of deposit, or landing 
and loading, was for a second time denied them 
there, they made loud complaint; and when it 
was learned that Louisiana had passed to the em- 
pire of the powerful Napoleon, the government 
echoed their cry of apprehension. But there were 
those who realized that the acquisition of that 
territory was more than a matter of defense; 
that the natural expansion of our people would 
sometime crowd out all the claims of European 
monarchies, whose distance made the competition 
quite unequal. Elvers do not make good bound- 
aries; conquest and settlement make transverse 
lines across them, so as to make the river a high- 
way of successive culture areas, rather than a 
permanent political barrier between them. All 
this is quite apparent to one who has read the 
history of the Rhine, the Danube, or even the 
St. Lawrence. 

By 1800 the American settlement had not only 
become predominant in the region about Natchez 
and Bayou Pierre (Map 21b), but, on invitation 
from the Spanish governor, it had gone on before 
the flag and become important in such places as St. 
Louis, St. Charles, Cape Girardeau, New Madrid 
(Map 34), and Ste. Genevieve (Map 15a), across 
the Mississippi, while some had reached Natchi- 
toches on the Red and Baton Rouge in West 
Florida (Map 21b). Jefferson highly valued the 
western pioneers, who thus brought acres under 
cultivation, and hoped that as soon as possible they 
might carry republican institutions indefinitely 
westward. Therefore, in the crisis of 1802 he set 
about to buy Louisiana, soon realizing that, as 
settlement and commerce had made clear, New 
Orleans and the inland region beyond the Missis- 
sippi were interdependent and must be bought 
together. The purchase was made, and by a sub- 
sequent act the land now included in the state of 
Louisiana, except its portion east of the Missis- 
sippi, was made the territory of Orleans, while the 
rest retained the old name, Louisiana (Map 27). 

But the boundaries of the purchase were not 
clearly stipulated. The natural limits, which may 
be indicated from Map 27, show the area of our 
country beyond the Appalachians aa like a funnel 



137 



with a narrow spout at New Orleans. Now ' ' rivers 
and nations strive equally to reach the sea,"^ and 
great pressure might be expected on both sides of 
this constricted outlet. As our Map 30 shows, the 
United States for sixteen years claimed all the 
land to the Rio Grande, on a broad historical 
definition of the ancient province of Louisiana, 
but the whole of this was not obtained for another 
generation. On the east, Jefferson maintained 
that the purchased region had at least once been 
supposed to reach to the Perdido River (Map 26b), 
and accordingly, in 1804, he had the environs of 
Mobile Bay, together with some other temtory, 
organized as a revenue district. But he cautiously 
located its customs house at Fort Stoddert (Map 
26a), on land agreed by all as belonging to the 
United States. 

This ' ' Mobile Act" brought such able and severe 
remonstrance from Spain, however, that the Presi- 
dent retreated, declaring that he had been mis* 
understood. The first permanent annexation of 
West Florida lands came in 1810, when a revolu- 
tion carried through by Americans resident near 
Baton Rouge established a "commonwealth" of 
West Florida. On application from its officers, 
President Madison, without pausing until Con- 
gress reassembled, authorized Governor Claiborne 
of the territory of Orleans to march troops as far 
as the Pearl River, the region intervening between 
that and the Perdido being still claimed, but not 
now to be occupied. Madison justified this sum- 
mary addition of four new districts to the territory 
of Orleans on the presidential interpretation of the 
treaty of 1803, but, inasmuch as the Spanish 
claim had heretofore not actively been challenged, 
the President's action has generally been consid- 
ered as somewhat aggressive. Later, Spain's im- 
proper hospitality to British troops about Mobile 
provided an occasion for the occupation of 1813 
alluded to on Map 26b. 

A few months after the purchase of Louisiana, 
Jefi'erson sent out a scientific expedition under 
Capt. Meriwether Lewis and Lieut. William Clark 
to explore the western country as far as the Pa- 
cific. This accorded with the President's desird 
for expansion quite as much as with his genuine 

1 E. C. Semple, American Bistory, p. 107. 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



devotion to natural science, for the journey, whose 
routes may be traced from Map 25, was later 
used as one claim to Oregon. Interest in the West 
was further evidenced and fostered by the expedi- 
tion of Capt. Zebulon M. Pike, who in 1805 and 
1806 followed the Mississippi from St. Louis al- 
most to its source, and during the next two years 
led a party from the same place up the Osage 
River (Map 36), thence to touch the Republican, 
and almost due south again to the Arkansas, up 
which he followed till he reached the region of the 
peak that bears his name. He then went on to 
Santa Fe, the second oldest town within the pres- 
ent limits of our nation, south to cross the Rio 
Grande, where now stands El Paso (Map 83), 
and, curving through the region to the south, 
around to Natchitoches. Several times in the 
latter portion of his journey he was roughly 
treated by the Spanish officials, who felt they had 
good reason to suspect the curiosity of the Ameri- 
can government. 

It was natural that Spain should resent the sale 
of Louisiana to the United States, contrary to 
Napoleon's express engagement, and that she 
should seek to hold the new proprietor, if possible, 
to the Red River as a boundary. War seemed im- 
minent in 1806 ; and the West was ready. It was 
doubtless this anti-Spanish feeling that brought 



many to support the mysteriously veiled schemes 
of Aaron Burr. Following Map 26a, the student 
should indicate his route in 1806 and 1807, and the 
region of his land claims. 

Time showed that Spain had ceased to be a 
menace ; she could not hold her Indians to peace, 
it was true, but she no longer urged them on to 
war. But the citizens of the Northwest had reason 
to believe that the British in Canada had never 
abated their zeal in stirring the savages against 
American frontiersmen. Using Map 27, the polit- 
ical division of the Northwest Territory by 1809 
may be indicated, and using Map 28a, some lines 
may be drawn which help us to understand the 
Indian point of view. Oftentimes the treaties 
were extorted by a show of arms and plentiful 
disbursement of strong liquor ; but the white men 
seldom waited even for these treaties. The battle- 
field of Tippecanoe, in 1811, about eighty miles 
up the Wabash from Fort Harrison, should be 
indicated. It will be remembered that England's 
interest in this battle contributed to the irritation 
felt against that government, along with other 
incidents : the Leander affair of 1806 in New York 
harbor, the Chesapeake and Leopard in 1807 off 
Cape Henry (Map 34), and the President and the 
Little Belt also off the Virginia coast. 



MAP STUDY No, 16 

THE SECOND WAR OP INDEPENDENCE 

Text: Bassett, pp. 320-333; Babcock, Eise of American Nationality, pp. 50-201. 
Map: Eastern United States (2). 



THE men of business in the seaboard cities, 
venturing heavQy in foreign commerce, were 
averse to offending the Mistress of the Seas. With 
Europe at war they enjoyed a great increase of 
the carrying trade and preferred to risk occasion- 
al indignities and loss at England's hands, all of 
which they could more than offset in their prices, 
rather than take a firm stand for national self- 
respect that would severely cut their profits. Many 
of them, too, especially in New England, were old 



Federalists who added to their business concerns 
a sentiment of admiration of British ways and in- 
stitutions. By tradition they abhorred any policy 
of Jeffersonians. They opposed the embargo ; they 
were against the war. But the small farmers, 
many of them debtors, had little to lose in such a 
turn and readily followed the leaders of the ex- 
uberant West with their limitless ambitions of 
expansions. 
Let us indicate upon one outline map the vote of 



133 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



the House of Eepresentatives on the declaration 
of war, June 4, 1812. Maine, which was yet a 
part of Massachusetts, was divided into three con- 
gressional districts, growing smaller in area from 
the east; the middle district from the lower An- 
droscoggin to the Penobscot (Map 43a) voted 
against the war, the others in favor. New Hamp- 
shire, which elected its Representatives on a gen- 
eral ticket, went three to two for war, as may be 
shown by including within the state boundaries 
three marks of one kind and two of another. In 
Vermont the northwestern quarter only voted 
against. In Massachusetts the Berkshire district 
and that around Fitchburg (Map 41b) did not 
vote; the eastern counties, except Essex, in the 
northeast, and Boston and vicinity, voted for the 
war, with the rest of the state against. Rhode 
Island and Connecticut were solidly against. In 
New York, Columbia County (Map 11a) and the 
west were not represented in the voting, and in 
the remainder four sections are discernible, three 
voting for and one against. The former were : (1) 
modern Franklin, Essex, Clinton, Warren, and 
Saratoga Counties; (2) Oswego, Onondaga, Madi- 
son, Cortland, Chenango, Broome, Tioga, and 
Chemung; (3) New York City (then represented 
by Tammany Republicans) and Long Island, ex- 
cept modern Kings and Queens Counties. The 
broad area left, comprising about half the state, 
was in opposition (Map 11a). New Jersey, wdth a 
general ticket, went four to two against. Penn- 
sylvania, east of a line drawn from the southwest- 
ern corner of Chemung County, New York, ap- 
proximately straight to the northern point of 
Delaware showed three to one for, with all 
the country west of the line also in favor. 
Delaware was against, likewise Maryland, except 
for three sections: (1) north of the Choptank 
River on the "Eastern Shore" of Chesapeake Bay 
(Map 10), and around to Baltimore (Map 41b) ; 
(2) old Calvert, Charles, and St. Marys Counties 
(Map 10) ; and (3) the mountainous region (Map 
41b). In Virginia most of the northern part of 
the Shenandoah VaUey was not represented in 
the voting, but the southern part, reaching to a 
point soriie sixty or seventy miles from the North 
Carolina border, together with most of what is 



now "West Virginia, and a strip along the Potomac 
from almost the western point of Maryland to 
Alexandria, went against. The rest of the state 
went for, except a small area in the extreme south- 
central part, half of which was unrepresented 
and half against the war (Maps 47 and 57b). In 
North Carolina only the south-central part voted 
against, with two small areas, in the northern cor- 
ners, not voting. South Carolina was entirely for 
war, like Tennessee and Ohio. Georgia, with a 
general ticket, showed three districts for, and one 
not voting. Kentucky, except for a small area 
near the center, was for the war. Contemplating 
our result, we observe that a war declared pro- 
fessedly for "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights" 
was favored by people who were neither traders 
nor sailors. 

With the aid of Maps 28b, 29, and 31b, the stu- 
dent should locate all the places and routes men- 
tioned in Bassett, pp. 321-326, 329-335, or any 
other fairly detailed account, attaching, when 
possible, a date (year) to each place. Notice that 
the whole war was fought on the rim of the country, 
frontier and coast, leaving the great interior to 
develop that economic independence which the 
war 's necessity called forth. With farm lands un- 
harried and manufactures grown considerable, the 
country speedily recovered in 1815. This was 
possible of course, only in a country of such great 
extent as ours, where neither economic nor polit- 
ical energies were wholly focused in a single place 
and which had no all-important gateway fortress 
like Quebec. The United States as yet had no 
military key. Notice the advantage for defense 
which the St. Lawrence system afforded the Eng- 
lish, as it had the French a half century before. 
It offered easy access to the sea and supplies from 
home, while, frostbitten in the winter, it held off 
serious attacks until these supplies could arrive 
securely. As long as England held the two pen- 
insulas at the ends of Lake Erie, she controlled 
the northwest of our country. 

But these could not be captured and retained, 
nor could such distant posts as Fort Mackinac and 
Detroit be held, without the control of the Lakes, 
especially Lake Erie. General Hull, whose prompt 
surrender was no doubt indiscreet in consideration 



139 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



of moral effect, had, nevertheless, correctly read 
this situation and earnestly but vainly had prayed 
the government for naval support early in 1812. 
Harrison's invasion would have been of no per- 
manent effect without Perry's victory at Put-in- 
Bay. Dearborn, who started in 1813 from Sack- 
ett's Harbor, might have gained complete control 
of Lake Ontario if he had not swung off to York, 
instead of attacking the stronger position of King- 
ston. McDonough 's victory off Plattsburg, in 1814, 
closed the way to invasion from Canada in that 
quarter. "Water routes were then more important, 
when the alternative was threading the wilderness. 

' ' The importance of the lakes to military opera- 
tions must always be great," writes Admiral 
Mahan,^ "but it was enhanced in 1812 by the 
undeveloped condition of land communication. 
With the roads in the state they then were, the 
movement of men, and still more of supplies, was 
vastly more rapid by water than by land. Except 
in winter, when iron-bound snow covered the 
ground, the routes of Upper Canada were weU- 
nigh impassable; in spring and in autumn rains 
wholly so as to vehicles. The mail from Montreal 
to York — now Toronto — three hundred miles, took 
a month in transit. . . . The [British] Commander 
in Chief himself wrote, ' The command of the lakes 
enables the enemy to perform in two days what it 
takes the troops from Kingston sixteen to twenty 
days of severe marching.' " 

The poor showing of the American forces was 

1 A. T. Maban, Sea Power in Its Belationa to the War 
of 1812 (Boston, 1905), vol. i, pp. 301-302. 



not due entirely to incompetent generalship, but 
to factors of physical geography as well. The 
trials of transportation overland long distances 
through the forest raised the price of flour at 
Detroit by sixty dollars a barrel. "These condi- 
tions partly account for the ineffectiveness of our 
land campaigns on the frontier; and the demand 
for internal improvements, that became strong 
after the War of 1812, received an impetus from 
the same circumstances."^ It will be noticed that 
under these conditions the best fighting was done 
by seasoned frontiersmen under Harrison and 
Jackson. The motives for attacks on Washington 
and New Orleans are obvious. Observe the value 
set upon the three gateways of Detroit, Niagara, 
and the Champlain region. 

After reading Bassett, pp. 335-338, or the En- 
cyclopedia Britannica (llthedition) under "Hart- 
ford," show with the letters H. C. what states 
or communities sent representatives to the Hart- 
ford Convention. Note the places in Vermont and 
New Hampshire with relation to what is said in 
our introduction on "American History and the 
Map." In ,1813 the New York Assembly had been 
won by the Federalists, but Governor Tompkins 
was re-elected. Bearing in mind the great im- 
portance of the New York frontier and the situa- 
tion toward the east, consider what would have 
been the result if a Democratic candidate per- 
sonally less attractive than Tompkins had been 
running in that critical year. 

1 Albert H. Sanford, Teachers' Manual accompanying 
the Sanford American Eistory Maps, pp. 36-37. 



MAP STUDY No, 17 

THE SETTLING OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY 

Text: Bassett, pp. 341-349, 363-371, 394-396; Turner, Rise of the New West. 
Maps: Eastern United States (2 or 3). 



A STUDY of the military record of the War of 
1812, or even of the articles of peace, leaves 
one in doubt about our claim to victory ; but \'ic- 
tory is a state of mind, and we felt that we had 
vindicated our rights among nations. One result 



was a wave of national feeling, general and in- 
tense, if somewhat temporary. Our nascent in- 
dustries, which were planted largely in the North- 
east, commanded support throughout the Union 
for their necessary protection by high tariff in 



140 



HAEPER'S ATLAS OF AMEEICAN HISTORY 



1816 ; this may be indicated by placing the letter 
T. in those states voting for, and the letters A. T. 
in those voting against, after consulting Map 31a. 
Desire that the nation should in no future crisis 
be without the aid of a strong financial institution 
produced the fairly general support of a national 
bank in the same year. 

In 1818 the northern boundary of the Louisiana 
purchase was settled with Great Britain (Map 30) 
by the artificial line of 49° north latitude, inter- 
secting the natural mark of hills. But a far more 
irritating border controversy was that with Spain, 
especially as to Florida. The colonial officials 
had been unable or unwilling to prevent Amelia 
Island (Map 31b) being used as a resort for smug- 
glers operating throughout the years of embargo, 
nonintercourse and war, or to keep the Seminoles 
(Map 15b) from kidnaping Georgia slaves, or to 
exclude the English from their ports during the 
late hostilities (Map Study No. 15). After read- 
ing J. W. Burgess, The Middle Period (pp. 25-34), 
Allen Johnson, Union and Democracy (pp. 259- 
265), or Bassett, pp. 368-371, with preference in 
the order named, indicate the places mentioned as 
the scenes of conflict between 1812 and 1819 
(Map 31b). Using Map 30, show the boundary 
line of 1819. 

As another evidence of national aggressiveness, 
Maps 32 and 39b will show, in general, the amount 
of Indian land acquired by 1834. This made the 
settlement of the West and Northwest safe, and 
helped to bring about the admission of Indiana, 
Mississippi, Illinois, and Alabama, which should 
be indicated with dates (Map 30). The fact that 
these states in their first fundamental law gave 
suffrage to practically all white men^ undoubtedly 
had influence upon the older communities in the 
East. Comparing Maps 27 and 30, note how the 
Michigan territory had been enlarged at the time 
of the admission of Illinois. From Map 42 in- 
dicate the admission dates of Louisiana, Missouri 



1 Three of these states granted universal manhood suf- 
rage, but Mississippi required the payment of a tax or 
militia service. ' ' As enrollment in the militia was com- 
pulsory and the qualification simply mentioned 'a' tax 
without fixing the amount, the restriction did not amount 
to much in practice. ' ' — K. H. Porter, History of the Suf- 
frage in the United States (Chicago, 1918). 



(with its addition of 1836), Maine, Michigan, 
Arkansas, Florida, Iowa, and Wisconsin. 

Turning to Maps 40al and 40a2, the student 
may indicate with shading the area in the old 
Northwest Territory settled by more than six in- 
habitants to the square mile in 1830, and then the 
area similarly settled during the next decade. The 
first section, with the exception of the Western 
Reserve (Map 24 and Map Study No. 13), was 
cleared and planted chiefly by pioneers from Ken- 
tucky and the upland regions of Virginia and the 
Carolinas. Many came by steamboat or other 
craft on the Ohio River, for water routes became 
increasingly important until about 1850 (see Maps 
47 and 60), while many others came in by the 
National Road as it grew longer year by year. The 
road may be traced, with the aid of Maps 38 and 
34, through Union, Brownsville, Wheeling, Zanes- 
ville, Columbus, Indianapolis, to Vandalia. Cin- 
cinnati, their metropolis, was famous for their 
corn and pork shipped downriver to New Orleans. 
(From Map Study No. 14 do you remember any 
early settlement along the Ohio made by another 
stock?) 

The later settlers came during the 'thirties, 
largely from New England by way of the Erie 
Canal, the route of which should be traced. Locate 
Buffalo (Map 38), which began its larger growth 
when the first lake steamer, the Walk-in-the-Water, 
left her wharf in 1818, and developed after the 
completion of the canal in 1825. Other towns, like 
Rochester, owed their prosperity to this waterway, 
which served the fertile valleys of western New 
York. Cleveland, though founded in the eigh- 
teenth century (Map Study No. 14), did not be- 
come important until 1834, when the Ohio Canal 
(Map 47) connected it with the Ohio River. Later 
it was developed as a port for iron, coal, and oil 
for the Pittsburg district. With the wasteful 
farming then practiced in nearly all parts of the 
country, these New Englanders had exhausted 
much of what thin and stubborn soil their bowl- 
dery slopes afforded, and had made their way 
either to the industrial towns or struck out to the 
fertile Western plains and valleys. They now 
came in such numbers that shrewd observers 
prophesied that the great center of the West would 



141 



HAKPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



not be Cincinnati or St. Louis, after all, but 
Cleveland, the IMaumee town (Toledo; Map 47), 
or Chicago, which had been begun in 1830 at 
Fort Dearborn, finally, in the early 'forties, agree- 
ing upon the last. These emigrants had, by 1840, 
set up scores of towns, among them some which be- 
came famous as educational centers, like Oberlin, 
Ohio (Oberlin) ; Ann Arbor, Michigan (U. of 
M.) ; Crawfordsville, Indiana (Wabash) ; Gales- 
burg (Knox), Beloit (Beloit), and Rockford, Ill- 
inois (Rockford) ; and Madison, Wisconsin (U. of 
W.), which, if the student has sufficient time, may 
be located from an indexed modern map such as 
those in an encyclopedia. 

Show, from Map 34, how, in 1830, one could have 
gone, perhaps in a Conestoga wagon, from Mary- 
land to the Tombeckbee (or Tombigbee) Valley 
in Alabama, or likewise, from Maine to Erie, 
Pennsylvania, indicating a few important places 
passed through on each route. The first important 
stone road in America had been finished in 1794, 
between Philadelphia and Lancaster, Pennsyl- 
vania. Draw in lines to represent three canals 
that you judge to have been important in con- 
nection with this western emigration. But the 
trend of population in the early part of the nine- 
teenth century will be much more vividly illus- 
trated by tracing, from articles in an encyclopedia 
of American biography (Appleton's, Lamb's, or 
the National), the "residence line" — i.e., the gen- 
eral direction taken in selecting a home — by five 
of the following: S. A. Douglas, Abraham 
Lincoln's father, Lewis Cass, T. H. Benton, Henry 
Clay, S. P. Chase, Zachary Taylor, Hugh McCul- 
loch, Andrew Johnson, J. W. Grimes, James K. 
Polk, Jefferson Davis, your own parents or grand- 
parents. Place names may be found in the index 
and maps of any large atlas or general en- 
cyclopedia. 

The foreign immigration of the later 'forties and 
'fifties was chiefly of Irish and German stock. 



The former seemed to prefer the settled East, but 
the latter took up their way to the Middle West, 
centering in such places as St. Louis, Milwaukee, 
Cincinnati, etc. W. E. Dodd has an article in the 
American Historical Review, Vol. XVI, pp. 774- 
788, maintaining that the presence of Germans, 
enthusiastic supporters of the doctrines of liberty 
and nationalism, who came to northern Illinois 
because of the Illinois Central Railroad's sale of 
lands, made Lincoln's election possible in 1860. In 
1861 Union leaders kept Missouri by the support 
of Germans. 

Of course, all western emigrants took advantage 
of the railroads as fast as they became available, 
but they played but small part in the first half of 
the century, for it was not until about 1850 that 
the integration of local roads into trunk lines was 
to any considerable extent accomplished. They 
were preferred to rivers and canals throughout the 
North, because they could be used in the cold 
weather; in the middle 'forties winter travelers 
went from New York to Albany by ship to Boston 
and overland by rail. Trace the routes of three 
early railroads (Map 47) built to connect water- 
ways ; three typical short lines, each of less than 
a hundred miles in length ; and two longer lines. 

From the following table show, with stars, ap- 
proximately the center of population as deter- 
mined in each decade to 1860, noticing the more 
rapid westward course after 1830, due to better 
transportation ways, and the crossing of the Alle- 
ghanies by 1850 : 



Year 


North Latitude 


West Longitude 


1790 


39° 


16' 


76° 11' 


1800 


39° 


16' 


76° 58' 


1810 


39° 


11' 


77° 37' 


1820 


39° 


6' 


78° 33' 


1830 


39° 




79° 17' 


1840 


39° 




80° 18' 


1850 


39° 




81° 19' 


1860 


39° 




82° 49* 



MAP STUDY No, 18 

SECTIONALISM: ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE EAST 

Test: Bassett, pp. 384-388, 399-401, 407-410; McDonald, Jacksonian Democracy. 
Map : Eastern United States. 



AS might have been expected, the settling of 
the Mississippi Valley was bound to intro- 
duce new controversies into American politics. 
From the days of the seventeenth century, the 
West and the East were sensible of a conflict of 
interest. As early as 1634 the Watertown protest 
(Map Study No. 6) had pointed out that political 
representation was likely to lag behind the west- 
ward spread of population, and this had been the 
perennial theme of upland farmers in the South. 
Bacon's Rebellion of 1676 (Map Study No. 5) was 
an early evidence that the frontier demanded more 
protection than the safe and comfortable East 
thought necessary, a matter of dispute in the 
nation till long after the Civil "War. The West, 
glorying in its faith, borrowed heavily from the 
East, but was resentful when pressed by unsym- 
pathetic creditors desiring stringent laws against 
cheapening the legal tender (Map Study No. 13). 
The West was clamorous for government aid in 
building ways of transportation, which the East 
was slow to favor. The West eagerly desired more 
population to develop its prosperity, and urged 
with tireless zeal that the government lands be- 
yond the Appalachians be virtually given away to 
settlers. On the olher hand, the East believed that 
this common property acquired by the blood and 
treasure of all should be cashed in for the benefit 
of the old states as well as new, and employers in 
3^ the cities near the coast were especially averse to 
making the West more attractive to their mill 
hands. 

The first national question conspicuously to re- 
veal the opposition of the sections after the con- 
clusion of the second war with England was that 
of internal improvements proposed in the Bonus 
bill of 1817. Using a large B. to indicate those 
states which voted favorably through their Sena- 



tors, A. B. for those voting against, and leaving 
unmarked those divided or not voting, the result 
of the vote may be illustrated from the following 
data : For — New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- 
nia, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, 
Kentucky, Louisiana; against — Massachiisetts (in- 
cluding Maine), Vermont, Rhode Island, Connec- 
ticut, South Carolina, Tennessee. New England 
was as yet against the development of transpor- 
tation to the West. 

The antipathy was persistent. During the later 
'twenties Senator Benton of Missouri repeatedly 
introduced his Graduation bill to reduce the price 
of government Western lands to twenty -five cents 
an acre, and, to settlers, actually giving outright 
parcels which were not bid in when oifered at 
fifty cents. All land unsold at twenty -five cents 
after a year was to be given to the states wherein 
it lay. Using the letter G. and A. G. (preferably 
in a new color), there may be shown, as before, 
the result of the test vote on May 7, 1830 : For — 
North Carolina, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Ten- 
nessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mis- 
souri; against — Maine, Vermont, Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware. The East was 
much more populous, and the measure failed in 
the House. The Eastern Whigs, who had been 
suspected by the Westerners, took an Indiana 
man, W. H. Harrison, as their presidential candi- 
date in 1840, and, as is shown on Map 40b2, 
captured all of that section except the incorrigible 
states of lUniois, Missouri, and Arkansas. In 
1841 a permanent pre-emption law was passed 
giving a special low price to squatters, but the 
West was not wholly satisfied until the home- 
stead law of 1862. It will be remembered that 
it was the resolution offered by Senator Foote 



143 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



of Connecticut to suspend for a time the sale 
of Western public land that brought forth in 
support Webster's great speeches of January, 
1830. Ilis first antagonist was Benton, but he 
was soon supplanted by Hayne of South Caro- 
lina, showing that the South, feeling itself also an 
object of discrimination by the more populous 
Northeast, was anxious to join hands with the 
West. 

The slave system of the South, where the plan- 
tations were growing larger, did not offer oppor- 
tunity for the immigrant, and the section was 
conscious of a relative decline in population. This 
condition threatened to leave it at the mercy of 
the manufacturing East, which, with its power 
in the House of Representatives, could carry 
measures of protective tariff. Shading the areas 
lightly with lead pencil, the student should in- 
dicate the vote on the Tariff biU of April 22, 1828 
(Map 35b), making mental note of the transfer 
of certain interests in New England from shipping 
to manufacturing, the gain of the opposition in 
Tennessee and Missouri, and its loss in western 
Virginia, which was disaffected toward the govern- 
ment at Richmond. With the letters F. and A. F., 
show the states for and against the Force bill 
(Map 39a2). 

Calhoun and other Southern leaders labored 
earnestly in the early 'thirties to bind the West to 
the South, and the prospect of the alliance seemed 
to be favored by the circumstance that North- 
western farmers supplied the Southern plantations 
with foodstuffs, mules, and horses, floated along 
the river routes on rafts. Do you recall ever 
having read of a young man, afterward very 
prominent, who, in 1831, helped to pilot a flat- 
boat down the Sangamon, Illinois, and Mississippi 
Rivers to New Orleans (Map 34) ? 

But the West could not be single-minded on 
this matter. The East, unlike the South, came to 
offer support to internal improvement, and to a 
tariff on raw wool, if the West^ would help pro- 
tect its manufactures. The farmer of the old 
Northwest depended on the East for manufactured 
goods, which he received by way of the canals and 



turnpike roads, and which he paid for with his 
bills of exchange on the Southern planters. As 
the Eastern cities grew, he doubtless wished that 
he could cheaply and directly send his produce to 
their market, which would in some respects be 
more satisfactory than the South. The railroads 
of the 'fifties gave him this opportunity, and did 
much to set his allegiance toward the Union rather 
than the Confederacj'. The old political division 
based on longitude now disappeared ; manufactur- 
ing spread westward and both regions drew a 
plentiful supply of labor from the growing im- 
migration. In contrast to the attitude of Foote 
and Webster, thirty years before, the Homestead 
biU of 1862 was brought in by an Easterner, 
Senator Justin S. Morrill of Vermont. In Map 
Study No. 17 we saw the few short railroads be- 
yond the AUeghanies in 1850 (Map 47). Turn 
now to Map 49 and notice the astonishing develop- 
ment in the decade following. Indicate the rail- 
road route from Syracuse to Milwaukee, and from 
Pittsburg to St. Louis. One historian has re- 
marked: "If the great American novel is ever 
written, I hazard the guess that its plot will be 
woven around the theme of American transporta- 
tion, for that has been the vital factor in the 
national development of the United States. Every 
problem in the building of the Republic has been, 
in the last analysis, a problem in transportation."^ 
Although in this pronouncement there is enough of 
hyperbole to make it striking, there is also enough 
of truth to start a train of very useful reflection. 
From Map 53 indicate with Roman numerals 
the comparative importance of the six states which, 
by 1860, produced more than $75,000,000 each in 
value of manufactures. Locate Pawtucket, Rhode 
Island (Map 9), where, in 1790, Samuel Slater 
erected the first complete cotton-spinning mill in 
America ; Lowell, Massachusetts (Map 38 ) , founded 
in 1826 as the first of the new "miU towns," and 
named in honor of Francis Cabot Lowell, who had, 
in 1814, set up at Waltham the first plant in 
America to turn raw cotton into finished cloth. 
Most foreign travelers were surprised and de- 
lighted with the comfortable li^'ing and intelli- 



1 See introductory essay on American Eistory and the ^ A. B. Hulbert, The Paths of Inland Commerce (New 

Map. Haven, 1920), p. 7. 

144 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF. AMERICAN HISTORY 



gence of the farmers' daughters who "manned" 
these mills in the 'thirties and 'forties, before they 
were supplanted by the Irish and French-Cana- 
dian immigrants. Locate Oneida County, New 
York (Map 11a), the center of early textile manu- 
facture in that state. Had we time to make a 
more elaborate indication, we would see that the 
early manufacturing towns were developed beside 
waterfalls, as near the sea as possible. Steam and 
railroads did not free the manufacturer from this 
necessity until nearly the middle of the century. 
Locate Kichmond, Virginia (Map 38), through 
which was brought much of the soft-coal supply 
for the United States, early in the nineteenth cen- 
tury; the Lehigh Valley, in northeastern Penn- 
sylvania, served by two canals (Map 38), and 
whose "stone coal," or anthracite, began to be 
used in industry about 1820, though not for smelt- 
ing iron for another eighteen years ; the Pittsburg 
district and southeastern Ohio, which were becom- 
ing industrially important just before the Civil 
War by reason of their growing production of 
soft coal and iron ; New Bedford (Map 47 ) , whose 
whalers were so numerous in 1845 as to make it 
the fourth port of the country in tonnage; and 



Titusville, Pennsylvania, about thirty miles east 
of MeadviUe (Map 34), where in 1859, Col. E. L. 
Drake sank the first oil well in America. The 
kerosene derived from the petroleum of north- 
western Pennsylvania supplanted in the public de- 
mand the whale oil from New Bedford and the 
candles from Cincinnati. 

On the back of your map sheet devise a simple 
graphic chart which will show the curve of immi- 
gration according to the following table : 

Decade preceding 

1830 143,000 

1840 600,000 

1850 1,700,000 

1860 2,600,000 

On another similar chart show the curve of per- 
centage of urban population in the country : 1790 
—3.35%; 1800—3.97%; 1810—4.93%; 1820— 
4.93%; 1830—6.72%; 1840—8.52%; 1850— 
12.49%; 1860—16.13%. It will be noticed that 
cities grew four times as important in the first 
six decades of the nineteenth century, but that 
the people of the United States were still over- 
whelmingly agricultural in their interests. 



MAP STUDY No, 19 

THE PLANTATION" EMPIEE AND THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE 

Text : Bassett, pp. 850-352, 371-375, 428-431 ; Hart, Slavery and Abolition. 
Map: Eastern United States. 



WHEN, on the eve of the Civil War, that dis- 
cerning traveler, Frederick Law 01m- 
stead, summed up his observation of the South in 
his book, The Cotton Kingdom, he included a map 
of that broad domain, based chiefly on the census 
of 1850, the main features of which we may now 
reproduce. Starting from New Orleans, one notices 
an area which represents the field of heaviest pro- 
duction, about fifty miles broad, along the western 
bank of the Mississippi, almost to the boundary 
of Missouri and branching up the Red and the 
Arkansas. On the eastern bank this .strip is twice 
as broad, and, turning east, to include the whole of 
southwestern Tennessee and northern Mississippi, 
runs diagonally to southern Alabama and across 



through central Georgia and western South Caro- 
lina. The lower valleys of the Brazos and the 
Colorado, in Texas (Map 41a), were cultivated 
with similar intensity. The rest of Mississippi 
and Alabama should be shaded to show a little 
less importance in the cotton crop, as should also 
the area of Arkansas and Louisiana, except the 
northern and southern portions. A belt beginning 
about seventy miles from the Gulf coast and 
stretching back a hundred and twenty -five or fifty 
miles connected this region with the Texas valleys 
we have shown. 

As loyal allies should be indicated the dominions 
of tobacco, rice, and sugar. The parts of the 
former, as was the case with some states in old 



145 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Germany, were not contiguous, but the interests 
of all those which lay south of the Ohio and 
the ]\Iason and Dixon's line (Map 37 and Map 
Study No. 5) were largely identical. Maryland, 
from the Chesapeake to the narrowest part, was 
one province ; Virginia, east of the mountains (ex- 
cept a narrow strip along the Potomac and the 
coast), was another, which curved as far south as 
central North Carolina; northwestern Tennessee, 
including the central part of the Cumberland Val- 
ley, together with all western Kentucky, was an- 
other; and the valley of the Missouri as far as 
Independence (Llap 47), the fourth. From I\Iap 53 
may be shown the areas occupied by rice and sugar. 

Such was the plantation empire resting on the 
broad backs of the slaves. Its freight highways 
were the rivers, as is suggested in Maps 47 and 
60. Its society was stratified into castes in which 
the owners of the large plantations, on the river 
bottoms, though few in number, made up the rul- 
ing group, taking a lively and intelligent interest 
in politics themselves and speaking also through 
the clergymen, professors, physicians, and editors, 
allied with their families. Education came to be 
forbidden to the slaves; there Were few free 
schools, except those kept from charity for the 
poor. But the master class were devoted to the 
classics and religion, and supported many colleges 
for the education of their sons. To emphasize the 
fact that the leading Southerners before the war 
were well schooled, let us locate some of the lead- 
ing institutions. 

The University of Virginia, founded in 1819 by 
Thomas Jefferson at Charlottesville (Map 58b), 
had perhaps the widest reputation and the highest 
prestige of all, but in the same state there were 
eight other colleges of excellent standing. Lex- 
ington (Map 58b) was the seat of Washington 
College (1813), which after the war was to en- 
large its name in honor of its president, Robert E. 
Lee, and the Virginia Military Institute (1839), 
where "Stonewall" Jackson taught in the 'fifties. 
The first state university in the nation was char- 
tered in 1784 at Athens, Georgia (Map 59a), but 
the first in actual teaching was that of North Caro- 
lina, patterned after Princeton in 1789, at Chapel 
Hill, about half way between Greensboro and 



Raleigh (Map 58b), and which furnished twenty 
generals to the Confederate armies. After much 
debate between the coast and mountain districts, 
the College of South Carolina had been located, 
in 1810, in Columbia, at the head of na\dgation 
on the Congaree (Maps 59a and 47). In 1819, 
about the time of the admission of Alabama and 
Mississippi, Congress gave to each of these new 
commonwealths a grant of land which served as 
the basis of support of two state universities, that 
of the former opening at Tuscaloosa (Map 59a) in 
1831, and that of the latter at Oxford (in the 
north central part of the state about fifty miles 
from the border) in 1848. These two antebellum 
institutions needed no other certification than the 
fact that for twenty-four years the distinguished 
Dr. Frederick A. P. Barnard played an important 
part in their teaching and direction. In Alabama 
there were nine other colleges. Beyond the AUe- 
ghanies, Transylvania University, at Lexington, 
Kentucky (Map 19b), was founded in 1798, al- 
most the first in the Mississippi Valley.^ Here 
Henry Clay was a professor from 1804 to 1807, 
and here President Horace HoUey (1818-27) and 
others established Lexington's claim to be the 
"Athens of the West." Jeiferson Davis was an 
alumnus of Transylvania. The leaders of the Old 
South, the " slavoerats, " were cultivated men. 

But the great majority of Southern whites did 
not hold slaves. The introduction of the cotton 
gin had made short-staple cotton profitable, and 
this could be raised on soil farther upland than the 
variety previously grown. Planter capitalists of- 
fered prices that practically forced the farmers 
to sell and move either to the Northwest (Map 
Study No. 17) or to the higher and less fertile 
slopes nearer by. In these latter districts they 
played a losing game, for in the old South the op- 
portunity was small for the man who had no 
slaves. The hilly area shown in Map 61, together 
with some of western North Carolina, northwest- 
ern Georgia, and northeastern Alabama,- as well 
as that of northern Arkansas and southern Mis- 



ue 



1 This distinction belongs to Washington College, a small 
institution, chartered in Washington County, Tennessee, 
in 1705. 

2 The "piney woods" in southern Alabama were also 
inliabited by the poorer whites. 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



souri, was peopled by those who had reason to dis- 
like the plantation empire, and may be indicated 
as regions of some dissent. But they naturally had 
inferior leadership, they feared any change which 
would make the negro more nearly their social 
equal, and they half believed the earnest and 
sincere defenders of slavery, who declared it good 
for everybody. Only West Virginia (Maps 58b 
and 61 ) broke away during the war. 

The rulers of the "empire" had not much to 
fear from foes within, but they were bitterly re- 
eentful of interference from without. If, following 
Map 42, the student will indicate the dates of 
emancipation in the Northern states, he will notice 
that there slavery had disappeared by 1827, except 
for a dwindling number in New Jersey. Then 
outline the boundary of slave-state area as it ex- 
isted on March 4, 1845, the day after Florida's 
admission. Slaves were produced in Kentucky 
and Virginia beyond the need of the tobacco 
planters, and were taken south to the cotton, rice, 
and sugar lands by routes five of which may be 
shown from the map. These masters, feeling 
themselves the victims of unpleasant circum- 
stances, often parted with their slaves with genu- 
ine reluctance. Economic selfishness but rein- 
forced their natural hxunan sympathy in caring 
for their slaves, and it is not surprising that the 
darkies carried to the sweltering fields of the 
lower South have been represented as singing 
fondly of their old Kentucky home, or praying 



some kind fate to carry them back to "Ole Vir- 
ginny." By which route was Uncle Tom trans- 
ported? 

It was this trafSc, chiefly, which roused North- 
ern sentiment to the formation of abolition so- 
cieties. In the last of the 'forties societies existed 
along the New England coast and the Connecti- 
cut River, central and western New York, south- 
eastern and northwestern Pennsylvania, Ohio 
(except the centi-al and northwestern parts), In- 
diana (except along the Ohio River), and along 
the Illinois and Rock Rivers (Map 34) in Illinois. 
After 1833 the slave who reached Canada was free 
by British statute, and there were many sympa- 
thizers in the North who were willing to aid him 
on his way. Their eiforts, of course, were secret, 
by reason of the fugitive-slave law, and their 
system came to be known as the "Underground 
Railroad." Prom Map 41b show five important 
routes. Notice the connection with abolition so- 
cieties; comparison with Map Study No. 17 will 
show the effect of New England settlement, and 
with Map Study No. 7 the influence of the Quak- 
ers. Locate Warsaw, in Wyoming County, New 
York (Map 11a), where the Liberty Party was 
formed; the places of residence of Gerrit Smith, 
Wendell Phillips, and Harriet Beecher Stowe; 
six other places of interest in the abolition con- 
troversy, giving in a key your reasons for the 
selection. 



MAP STUDY No, 20 

MANIFEST DESTINY: SETTLEMENT, DIPLOMACY, AND WAR 
CARRY THE BOUNDARY TO THE PACIFIC 

Text : Bassett, pp. 419-422, 433-450 ; Garrison, Westward Extension, 
Maps : Western United States ; Texas and Mexico ; United States. 



I 



TYORDER Forays in the Northeast.— The United 
■■-' States and the British Empire have lived in 
peace for more than a hundred years, and their 
mutual good will has grown most cordial ; but rela- 
tions have not been unmarked, at times, with seri- 



147 



ous irritation, for we disliked the "mother coun- 
try's" aristocratic institutions as well as her re- 
puted eagerness for land. In 1837, the year of 
young Victoria's accession to the throne, agitators 
in Upper and Lower Canada set up a standard of 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



rebellion, in hope of more popular self-govern- 
ment,* a movement heartily applauded on this side 
of the St. Lawrence and the Niagara. Enthusiasts 
from northern and western New York crossed the 
border and took part in the engagements at the 
windmill opposite Ogdensburg and at Navy Island 
in the Niagara River. In retaliation, loyal Cana- 
dians crossed to the New York shore and burned 
a ship, the Caroline, which had been used in this 
illicit ferriage, stirring up such animosity that the 
War Department reinforced Fort Montgomery at 
the point of our farthest claim on Lake Cham- 
plain, near Rouse's Point (Map 47). 

A controversy over the Aroostook Country 
(Map 43a), claimed by Maine and by New Bruns- 
wick, dating back to the vague boundary arrange- 
ments of 1783, now grew more acute. There were 
altercations in the forest between opposing woods- 
men, and in 1838 Maine built forts along the bor- 
der, such as Fort Fairfield, on the Aroostook River, 
not far west of its juncture with the St. John. The 
lower portion of our eastern boundary had been 
agreed upon, in 1798, by a joint commission 
planned for in Jay's Treaty, but Great Britain 
maintained that the northern watershed, mentioned 
in 1783, began at Mars Hill, while the Americans 
argued for the highlands where the Metis River 
has its source. The treaty of 1815 provided for 
other commissions ; but, these failing, the king of 
the Netherlands as referee, in 1831, drew an arti- 
ficial boundaiy line unsatisfactory to this country. 
There was some question as to what was the source 
of the Connecticut, and as to the exact position of 
the forty-fifth parallel of latitude. The Webster- 
Ashburton Treaty of 1842 drew the line accepted, 
which made the St. John the boundary for a con- 
siderable distance, determined the highland ridge 
and the Connecticut, and took the American view 
of latitude. Oddly enough, an accurate survey 
would have left Fort Montgomery on British soil, 
and it was derisively called ' ' Fort Blunder, ' ' but 
now transfer of the necessary parcel was amicably 
arranged. All this can be illustrated on the map. 
It is interesting to note that a settlement of the 



1 The revolutionists complained especially of an arro- 
gant ruling clique of United Empire Loyalists in Upper 
Canada (Map Study No. 12). 



Creole question (Map 42) was provided for by 
arbitration. 

Texas, the "Lone Star State."— In Map Study 
No. 15 we saw that Spain, exasperated by Jeffer- 
son's purchase of Louisiana, insisted on the Red 
as her northeastern limit, wliile the diplomats in 
Washington, upon a hopeful reading of the rec- 
ords, claimed to the Rio Grande. The treaty of 
1819 (Map Study No. 17) brought a peaceful com- 
promise, but American pioneers now, as before 
1803 (Map Study No. 15), went on before the flag 
and made settlements in Texas. In 1821 Stephen 
F. Austin, who, after graduating from Transyl- 
vania University (Map Study No. 19), had served 
as a territorial legislator from Missouri, and as a 
territorial judge in Arkansas, secured from the 
new Mexican government a confirmation of a land 
grant which his father had received from Spain. 
Thereupon he gathered a company of adventurers 
and went south to form a colony on the Brazos 
River, where he gave law with patriarchal author- 
ity and where the principal town, San Felipe de 
Austin (Map 41a), was named in his honor. The 
immigrants from the United States increased in 
number until, in 1827, the apprehensive Mexican 
officials, disregarding the old Spanish boundary 
of Texas (Maps 41a and 45a), joined it with 
Coahuila, a strictly Mexican pro^^nce stretching 
across the middle portion of the Rio Grande to the 
central part of the country. 

A growing discontent with this unfriendly gov- 
ernment among the Americans, who especially dis- 
liked laws against Protestant worship and slavery, 
finally led to armed rebellion in 1835. The com- 
mand soon settled upon Sam Houston, an Indian 
agent from Tennessee, who had come to live in 
Nacogdoches (Map 41a), and a bitter war was 
fought. At first unsuccessful, the Texans were 
nerved to desperate resistance by the tragic butch- 
ery of the defenders of the Alamo Mission fort at 
San Antonio, among them such popular heroes 
as Capt. James Bowie and the picturesque CoL 
Davy Crockett. Finally, at San Jacinto, on an 
arm of Galveston Bay, the Mexicans were defeated, 
and tlieir general, Santa Anna, accepted the Rio 
Grande as the boundary of an independent state, 
though the whole arrangement was soon disavowed 
148 



HAEPEE'S ATLAS 01^ AMEEICAN HISTOEY 



in the city of Mexico. The capital of Texas was 
located at the new town of Houston (1836), but 
in 1839 removed to Austin (1838), where it has 
remained, except for three years after 1842, when 
President Houston brought it back to the place 
of his residence and name.^ 

Although the actual authority of Texas was 
never extended beyond the Neuces, the Texas con- 
gress defined the western boundary of the republic 
as the Rio Grande to its source and thence north to 
the forty-second parallel, about the latitude of 
Boston, while the Arkansas and the meridian of 
its source were taken as the eastern and northern 
limits as far as the treaty line of 1819. The citi- 
zens of the "Lone Star Republic" petitioned for 
annexation to their home land, but antislavery op- 
position in the Northern states delayed the project, 
and it was not until March 1, 1845, when reports 
of British influence in Texas had aroused some 
apprehension, that the republic was invited by 
joint resolution of Congress to be a state. The an- 
nexation was completed on December 29th of the 
same year, Texas being the only state ever ad- 
mitted without passing through a territorial stage, 
or being for a time under military rule or the 
jurisdiction of another state government.^ 

The Trappers and the Far West. — Reference to 
Map Study No. 15 will refresh our memory of the 
routes of Lewis and Clark, 1803-06. Their reports 
of broad beaver meadows, the buffaloes of the 
plains, and the teeming animal life of the moun- 
tain woods aroused Americans to emulate the 
lucrative business of the Hudson's Bay and North 
"West Companies operating under British license 
in western Canada. John Jacob Astor, having 
amassed a fortune in thrifty trade with the ]\Io- 
hawk Indians and the English companies, pur- 
chased the Mackinaw Company, and thus, with 
his post at the strait that leads from Lake Michigan 
(Map 28a), had acquired ascendancy on the Amer- 
ican side of the Great Lake Basin. In 1808 he 



^ The capital was set up for a few months in 1838 at 
Columbia. In 1839 it was temporarily at Washington. 

2 Lincoln maintained, in his first message to Congress, 
that Texas was the only state that had ever been 
sovereign : ' ' The original ones passed into the Union 
even before they cast off their British colonial depend- 
ence, and the new ones each came into the Union directly 
from a condition of dependence, except Texas." 



149 



organized the American Pur Company, and two 
years later sent out expeditions by land and sea 
to found Astoria, a post at the mouth of the 
Columbia River (Map 43b), which Capt. Robert 
Gray had discovered and named after his ship in 
1792. The land party, under W. P. Hunt, pushed 
their keel boats up the Missouri as far as the 
villages of the Arikara Indians (Map 36), and 
then, proceeding south along the Grand River 
(indicated on our map as the second tributary 
southeast of the Yellowstone, now in South Dako- 
ta) by horse and foot, past the Black Hills, 
through the Crow country, and up the Wind 
River, the upper tributary of the Bighorn (Maps 
36 and 25). Perforce abandoning most of their 
equipment, they then pushed through the ridge of 
the continent to the Snake, down which they 
floated in a few days ' respite from their cruel toil. 
Passing by the region of the modern Yellowstone 
Park, however, they encountered the Snake River 
Desert, a thousand miles of rocky waste and sage- 
brush, where game was very scarce and where 
they could not make their way down canon sides 
to drink the water of the river. ' ' To appease the 
cravings of hunger they ate beaver skins in the 
evening at the camp fire. They even were at last 
constrained to eat their moccasins."^ 

They struck out due west, and at last, worn and 
ragged, penetrated the Blue Mountains, near mod- 
ern Walla Walla, and reached the long-looked-for 
Columbia. Thus by suffering hardships, at which 
we have scarcely hinted, the first commercial party 
had pioneered through that forbidding country. 
The sea expedition, also, had had its trials with 
swift currents at the river's mouth. Three years of 
hard work and sixty-five lives were used up in 
establishing Astoria, but during the War of 1812 
the place became untenable, and at the beginning 
of 1814 was turned over to the North West Com- 
pany, which, together with that of Hudson's Bay, 
was operating in the region. 

But Astor 's enterprise, thus thwarted in the land 
beyond the mountains, was only one of many un- 
dertaken by Americans. The Missouri Fur Com^ 
pany was the first such firm to enter the field, and 

1 Gabriel Franchere, "Narrative of a Voyage to the 
Northwest Coast, 1811-14," in Early Western Travels, 
voL vi, pp. 269-270. 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



hoped for a monopoly in the great valley east of 
the mountains. They set up a post among the 
headwaters of the Missouri, but, driven out by the 
hostile Blackfeet, near Council Bluffs, they built 
Fort Lisa, named for their leader, and confined 
their operations to the region south of the Mandan 
villages, which may be indicated as their sphere 
of influence. Astor's company built Fort Union 
and others, and came to control the country of 
the Assiniboin and Blackfoot Indians, which may 
be shown as theirs, though this indication should 
include Fort Laramie and its vicinity, where 
they later gained control. It was in 1832 that the 
Yellowstone, the company's steamboat, first stem- 
med the river current from St. Louis to Fort 
Union, to the consternation of the Indians. In 
1821 Gen. William H. Ashley and others organ- 
ized the Eocky IMountain Fur Company, and a 
party of its traders two years later discovered 
South Pass, the easiest gateway of the Eockies. 
Ashley himself soon penetrated to Sevier Lake, 
in what is now southwestern Utah. The incredibly 
wretched Digger Indians, who inhabited the des- 
ert region between the Colorado and the Snake, 
could not be counted on for furs, but white trap- 
pers scoured the country regulai-ly for Ashley's 
company, and it may be indicated as his area of 
operation. 

Few American histories devote much space to 
Jedediah Strong Smith, a New Yorker associated 
with General Ashley, but if we trace the routes 
of his explorations we will be impressed with how 
much country he opened to geographical knowl- 
edge and to trade. First, in 1824, he traveled 
from South Pass up the Green and by the Snake 
to the site of Fort Boise. In the summer of 1826 
he set out with a small party, followed the Sevier 
Valley tiU he reached the Virgin, down which he 
traveled to the Colorado, where he found Indians 
advanced in agriculture. He continued to the 
Mohave country and, turning due west, he made 
his way across to San Diego, to the astonishment 
of the Mexicans ; he then crossed the Coast Eange, 
went through the valley of Lake Tulare, pene- 
trated the Sierra Nevada, wading through the 
snows of the Sonora Pass, and marched across the 
Great American Desert in twenty days. But our 



map makes clear how, not content with this achieve- 
ment, he scarcely waited to secure a new equip- 
ment before starting out on a journey of thousands 
of miles,' pushing up the Sacramento Valley, past 
Mt. Shasta, through fur regions unexploited, fin- 
ally to the Hudson's Bay Company's posts, and to 
the Eoclcy Mountain Company's rendezvous at 
Pierre's Hole. 

In 1821 the North West Company had been ab- 
sorbed by its older competitors of Hudson's Bay, 
and the valleys of the Columbia system, coming 
to be known as Oregon, were really ruled by the 
suave, discreet, and generous Dr. John McLough- 
lin, the company's chief factor in the Far West. 
By the convention of 1818 joint occupation was 
provided for the region (Map 46), but the white- 
haired factor at Fort Vancouver on the Columbia 
was really autocrat. In the middle 'thirties Jason 
Lee, and other Protestant missionaries whose wives 
were the first white women to cross the continent, 
came to Christianize the Indians, settling in the 
fertile Willamette Valley (Maps 43b and 53). 
Their reports brought other emigrants and the' 
Oregon Trail from Independence, Missouri (Maps 
38, 36, and 47), began to be used for wagons. 
Hard times throughout the Middle West in 1841 
and 1842 induced a considerable migration, es- 
si^ecially from Illinois ; in 1843 a provisional gov- 
ernment was set up at Champoag (Map 43b), and 
Oregon City became the first metropolis (Map 47). 
Doctor McLoughlin could not well protest, as the 
"Honourable Company's" servants were now 
greatly outnumbered by settlers from the states; 
the trapper must retreat before the farmer. 

With old Astoria in mind, the Democrats, in 

1844, declared for the "reoccupation of Oregon," 

claiming a clear and unquestionable title as far 

as 54° 40', the boundary of the Eussian trading 

region, Alaska. Their new President, Polk, like 

his predecessor, contented himself with offering the 

line of 49°, continued from the Mississippi Valley, 

but the British reiterated their demand for the 

land north of the Columbia from the intersection 

with that parallel to the sea. The agreement of 

joint occupation was now annulled and war might 

1 Our map is incorrect in that Smith went from Los 
Angeles to Monterey by ship instead of overland to San 
Jos^. 



150 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



soon have resulted, had not Great Britain herself, 
in June, 1846, made an acceptable offer of the 
forty-ninth parallel, reserving Vancouver Island 
and the right to navigate the Columbia, though 
the northern line at the ocean end was, unfor- 
tunately, left somewhat vague. In 1872 an arbitra- 
tion by the Emperor of Germany divided the little 
islands in the straits of Juan de Fuca, throwing 
the island of San Juan to the United States. 

The Latter-Day Saints. — The 'forties in Amer- 
ica are remembered as a period of religious and 
humanitarian enthusiasms, some centering in west- 
ern New York. In 1827, near Palmyra, in Wayne 
County (Map 11a), a farm hand named Joseph 
Smith dug up, as he said, certain gold plates 
bearing a new revelation. The fortunes of the 
converts to his theological beliefs demand our at- 
tention, because they founded a commonwealth 
and introduced a ' ' problem ' ' important in the his- 
tory of the Far West. Their clannishness and 
claims of special virtue were obnoxious to their 
neighbors; they moved to Kirtland, Ohio, about 
iwenty miles northeast of Cleveland, where, after 
violating the state banking law, they soon struck 
out for Independence, Missouri. But here they 
aroused animosity by disregard of ' ' gentile ' ' prop- 
erty titles, and after the ' ' Mormon War, ' ' lasting 
from 1833 to 1838, the apostles led the brethren 
back to Nauvoo, Illinois, about fifteen miles up the 
Mississippi from Fort Edwards (Map 34). Here 
they greatly improved the land and set up stately 
buildings, but their presence and attitiide pro- 
voked hostility, and, after their town had been 
cannonaded in 1846, they took up their trek across 
the rolling plains to the western bank of the Mis- 
ouri, opposite Council Bluffs, Iowa (Map 36), 
which came to be used as the winter quarters for 
the "saints" in their progress. 

The following year, under Brigham Young, 
a well-disciplined force set out to discover a Zion 
beyond the reach of persecution. Moving along 
the north bank of the Platte, somewhat better than 
the Oregon Trail on the other side, they crossed 
to Fort Laramie, pressed on through South Pass 
and across Green River to Fort Bridger (Map 47), 
and thence, despite the most disheartening reports, 
crossed through the other ranges, including the 



Wasatch, to the Salt Lake Valley in Mexico, where 
they immediately irrigated the soil and planted 
grain for those to come. The success that follows 
practical intelligence and thrift came to the Mor- 
mons, and during the next thirty years, by means 
of thorough discipline and mutual aid, a hundred 
thousand people, the majority of them women 
and children, were led over a thousand miles of 
desert and mountain, with a minimiun of loss in 
life and property. These companies were collected 
by missionaries in the British Isles and Scandi- 
navia, and financed by an emigration fund, some 
coming overland from New York and Philadelphia 
and others landing at New Orleans. Map 64 shows 
the extent of their early settlement. 

The Mexican War. — The annexation of Texas 
aroused the undying resentment of Mexico, and 
she opposed with particular bitterness the extreme 
boundary claims of that state. Certain other points 
having been long at issue, President Polk attemp- 
ted to negotiate, suggesting also the purchase of 
California, but his agent was not even received. 
Between the Neuces and the Rio Grande, a ter- 
ritory claimed by Texas and now by the United 
States, was the Mexican state of Tamaulipas, 
while beyond this and bounding old Texas on the 
west and northwest the disputed region was cov- 
ered by Coahuila, Chihuahua, and New Mexico. 

General Taylor was ordered to Corpus Christi 
(Map 45a, inset), and in March, 1846, marched 
toward the Rio Grande, near the mouth of which 
he buUt Fort Brown (now Brownsville), its guns 
commanding Matamoras across the river. An ex- 
ploring party was ambushed and President Polk 
declared that war existed by reason of a Mexican 
invasion. Taylor repaired to Point Isabel (follow 
lower inset) to protect his stores, and on his re- 
turn routed his foes at Palo Alto and Resaca de la 
Pahna and crossed to occupy Matamoras. In 
September he marched forward, stormed and cap- 
tured Monterey, but was soon obliged to part with 
many of his troops detailed to march to the mouth 
of the Rio Grande to join General Scott, moving 
by sea. Taylor went on to Saltillo, where he was 
joined by General Wool, who had marched from 
San Antonio. Thus reinforced, he hastened to 
meet, at Buena Vista, the Mexican general, Santa 



151 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Anna, ■whose forces, five times his own in number, 
he defeated. 

Meanwhile Scott had proceeded to Vera Cruz 
(Map 45a, upper inset) and, having taken the 
town on March 27, 1847, began to cut his way for- 
ward along the national road to the capital. Cerro 
Gordo fell, April 18th, before his thinning army, 
Pueblo on May 15th, Cherubusco on August 20th, 
and on September 14th he was in the city of 
Mexico. 

Our scene now shifts far to the northwest, the 
Mexican state of California. In 1769 the Spanish 
government, fearing the spread of Eussian in- 
fluence from Alaska, had begun to set up posts 
in this region, claimed for nearly a hundred and 
thirty years before. The original colonists at San 
Diego ( Map 44a ) , " four officers, sixty -five soldiers, 
and seventeen Franciscans, with a suitable com- 
plement of servants, mule drivers, and converted 
Indians, ' ' were typical of the whole period of His- 
panic occupation, in strongest contrast to the cus- 
tom of the Anglo-Saxons. Presidios, or forts, were 
soon also established at Monterey (1770), at the 
gate to the great bay named for St. Francis 
(1776 ) , and elsewhere. Many missions were estab- 
lished, such as those at San Carlos (1775), a few 
miles east of Monterey, and Dolores (1776), a 
short distance south of the presidio on San Fran- 
cisco Bay. That at San Gabriel (1771), near Los 
Angeles, was the largest; in 1833 there were here 
3,000 neophytes (converted Indians whose labor 
was controlled), who tended 105,000 cattle and 
raised 40,000 bushels of grain. Those at Santa 
Barbara (1786), and at San Luis Key (1798), 
about forty miles to the northeast, are often es- 
teemed the most beautiful. San Jose (1777) was 
the first pueblo or village settlement ; twelve fam- 
ilies were collected and settled, in 1781, at Neustra 
Senora de los Angeles, now the largest city of the 
Far West. 

Life in old California was not "progressive." 
In 1833 the Mexican government ordered the 
church land to be sold, but the rancheros, who 
bought the land that the padres thus resigned, 
made little difference in the quiet aspect of the 
country that Richard Henry Dana so clearly pic- 
tured in Two Years Before the Mast. About 1840 



162 



Easterners began to appear, like John A. Sutter, 
who obtained a grant a little way up the Sacra- 
mento River. Yerba Buena, founded in 1836, 
three miles north of the mission at Dolores, soon 
assumed the name of San Francisco, began to 
prosper and to attract some from beyond the 
mountains. "The ownership of California, like 
that of Oregon, was to be determined not by dip- 
lomats and battleships, but by settlers in actual 
possession of the land."^ A party of Missouri 
pioneers, in 1841, came on from the Salt Lake 
Valley, across the desert, and over the lofty Son- 
era Pass (Map 44a) ; and others followed along 
the somewhat easier route by Lassen's Road and 
that through the Truckee Pass, so that, in 1846, 
there were seven hundred Americans in Califor- 
nia. We have seen that President Polk already 
sought to gain these valleys for the national domain. 

Col. John C. Fremont's glowing narrative, 
based on his explorations in 1843 and 1844, en- 
couraged this migration, and the next year he 
was sent to seek out better roads for emigrants. 
Coming north from Walker Pass, he finally reached 
the neighborhood of Sonoma (Map 45a) and, de- 
spite contrary orders, aided a demonstration known 
as the ' ' Bear Flag War. ' ' But word soon reached 
the rebels that hostilities had been begun between 
the United States and Mexico and that Commo- 
dore Sloat had occupied Monterey. California was 
easily won, and on the arrival of General Kearny's 
force, detailed to march from Fort Leavenworth, 
the conquest was already accomplished. California, 
therefore, as well as the old state of New Mexico 
and the disputed parts of Texas, was transferred 
by the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, February 
2, 1848, to the United States (Map 46). 

Those who signed this treaty did not know that 
about a week before, at Sutter's Mill, on the 
American Pork not far from Sacramento (Map 
44a), a laborer had found the grains that were to 
make that territory indeed the Golden West. The 
" 'forty-niners" were not slow in coming, many 
daring the long way overland, especially by the 
northern pioneer route.^ 

1 Katharine Coman, Economic Beffinnings of the Far 
West (New York, 1912), vol. ii, p. 227. 

2 Of course, many also came by sea or across Mexico, 
Nicaragua, or the Isthmus. 



HAKPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



The population so rapidly increased that im- 
proved communication was clearly necessary. The 
Southern Pacific Railroad was projected by Jeffer- 
son Davis and others, but the most available route 
would lie through Mexican territory. Conse- 
quently, James Gadsden, a South Carolina rail- 



road man, then our minister to Mexico, was 
directed, in 1853, to buy the necessary strip (Map 
46), paying $10,000,000, or two-thirds as much as 
the sum paid for the whole Southwest in the 
recent treaty. 



MAP STUDY No. 21 

SLAVERY AND THE TERRITORIES: FROM THE MISSOURI 
COMPROMISE TO SECESSION 



Text : Bassett, pp. 450-518 ; Smith, Parties and Slavery; Chadwick, Causes of the Civil War, pp. 3-69, 

109-342 ; Hosmer, Appeal to Arms, pp. 3-18. 
Maps: United States (2), 



THE great period of territorial expansion came 
to a close in 1848 ; a magnificent domain had 
been acquired, available for American homes. But 
were they to be homes of farmers, each driving 
his own plow through his various fields, or of 
planters administering their great estates where 
gangs of negro slaves performed the simple but 
laborious routine tasks of staple crops, like cotton 
or tobacco ? This was a question which would not 
be ignored, for experience had proved that each 
system flourished only in the absence of the other. 
Many planters looked eagerly upon these virgin 
acres, for the methods of their tillage — more prop- 
erly called agricide than agriculture — were pecu- 
liarly exhausting to the soil, and many saw new 
fortunes could come only with new fields. On 
the other hand, the Northern pioneers, with whom 
migration farther to the west had become an in- 
eradicable habit, were quite as resolute that the 
land beyond the Mississippi should be held for 
individual ' ' improvers, ' ' like themselves and their 
sons. 

But the Southerner, who had no plan of moving, 
was almost as much interested in the West as 
those who did, for his peculiar institution, con- 
fronted by a growing majority of industrial work- 
ers and small farmers in the nation, was politically 
on the defensive ; he needed more states, and thus 
more Senators, to block unfavorable laws. In 



1820 (Map 42) he had bargained away his oppor- 
tunity in the major part of the old Louisiana Pur- 
chase in return for one state, Missouri. As in 
1848 he looked upon the map, he saw for his future 
south of the 36° 30'^ line only a meager bit .of 
Indian country; and he naturally resolved that 
the California valleys and the territories of Utah 
and New Mexico, shortly to be formed, should not 
be taken from him. When he read of the Wilmot 
proviso which would thwart him completely, he 
thanked fate for the Senate, where his statesmen 
used their veto. He was willing, perhaps, as a 
last retreat, to accept President Polk's suggestion 
that the line of 36° 30', permitting slavery to the 
South, should be extended to the Pacific, for south- 
ern California was the most adaptable of the new 
acquisitions to his system. 

But as he heard of the territorial organization 
of Oregon and Minnesota (Map 48), and realized 
that "free" statehood would soon follow, he saw 
that possibly this would be too generous a conces- 
sion. He applauded Texas in her insistent claims 
to hold within her own jurisdiction the vast area 
which we have indicated as contained vnthin the 



153 



1 This line it is seen, -was along the same latitude as the 
southern boundary of Kentucky, west of the Tennessee 
Eiver. It was thought best to join to Missouri the entire 
group of settlements which had been formed southwest 
of the mouth of the Ohio, which accounts for this protu- 
berance along the Mississippi. 



HARPEE'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



limits she had drawn in 1836 (Map Study No. 
20), even though the new President, General Tay- 
lor, had threatened to send soldiers. When Texas 
had been "reannexcd," it had been agreed that 
the 36° 30' line should apply to Texas, and that 
as many as four states, if Texas wished, might be 
made from it. Ilence it was important that her 
territory be as wide as possible. He was impressed 
with the menace of the Pree-Soilers' vote, as he 
noted the unusual frequency of the word "plu- 
rality" in the record of the late election (Map 
44b2). He took some interest in the convention 
called for June, 1850, at Nashville (Map 42), to 
threaten secession if the Polk plan were not taken, 
though he had more faith in Senator Clay's pro- 
posals, which were debated from January to Sep- 
tember, and whose territorial provisions we may 
now indicate upon the map (Map 48). He saw, 
however, that the compromising sentiment was 
by no means universal, for though general in the 
border sections, there were many sections, north 
and south, where extremists seemed bent on fol- 
lowing Seward or Calhoun (Map 45b). 

Such was the situation in September, 1850, 
which many hoped might last forever ; but an un- 
developed country was not likely to remain in 
such legal assignments.fBenator Stephen A. Doug- 
las desired to build up the West. He preached the 
policy of land grants to the railroads, and especial- 
ly desired a road to the Pacific, which would bring 
commerce to Chicago, such as was projected in the 
Union Pacific from Council Bluffs (Map 62). To 
make this a success it would be desirable to open 
the Indian country (Map 48) to settlement as 
soon as possible, for which political provision 
should be made. With David Atchison, of western 
Missouri, a proslavery leader who had gained con- 
trol of that state and who coveted the plains of 
Kansas for the plantation system, he drew up a 
plan to open it to whatever kind of settlement 
might come, thus pleasing the Southern statesmen 
in his disregard of the Missouri Compromise. 

This Kansas-Nebraska bill which thus organ- 
ized two territories (compare Maps 48 and 55) 
on the principle of "squatter sovereignty" — i.e., 
that the actual settlers might decide as to slavery 
when they applied for statehood — renewed and 



embittered the discassion as to slavery in the 
territories and began the series of contentions di- 
rectly leading to the Civil War. Our Map 51a re- 
veals how marked this sectionalism had grown. In 
details it is instructive, showing, for example, that 
California was sometimes controlled by Senator 
Gwin's proslavery faction, though Senator Brod- 
erick finally kept it fast within the Union ; that 
New Hampshire was still loyal to the Democratic 
party, as she had been since the War of 1812 
(see Maps 33bl, 40bl, 40b2, 44bl, and 44b2), 
though, disturbed by this slavery question, she 
was to change the following year, and soon became 
almost as steadily Republican ; that the people of 
Indiana were sufficiently Southern in origin to 
keep that state a "doubtful" one even to-day; 
and that Iowa had been won by Douglas's scheme 
of railroad settlement. 

But the indignation throughout the North was 
widespread, and nowhere more intense than in 
the Northwest, ' ' Anti-Nebraska ' ' Democrats joined 
Whigs and Free-Soilers, for example, at Ripon, 
Wisconsin (about seventy-five miles northwest of 
Milwaukee ; Map 48), to form a new party pledged 
to close the territories to any extension of slavery. 
On July 6, 1854, a mass meeting "under the oaks" 
at Jackson, Michigan (Map 48), representing sev- 
eral states, drew up the first platform of the Re- 
publican party. Many others, north and south, 
who desired to emphasize a less sectional issue, 
joined the American party, formed to combat 
foreign influence alleged especially to be wielded 
through the Catholic Church, and this organiza- 
tion the next year got virtual control of nine 
states (Map 52a), each of which may be marked 
with an A. But the great question of slavery and 
the territories was insistent, and the following year 
all but one of these was lost. With the letters 
J.B., J.C.F., and M.P., the initials of the candi- 
dates, indicate the states carried by Buchanan, 
Fremont, and Fillmore in 1856 (Map 52b). 

The competition for Kansas between the farmers 
and the planters, each, to a small degree, encour- 
aged by propagandist funds, was such as to lead to 
bloodshed. After reading the assignment indicate 
from ]\Iap 51b, with key, the principal ' ' free state ' ' 
and "slave state" communities in that territory. 



154 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Another issue was soon furnished in the case of 
Dred Scott, whose travels from St. Louis, through 
Rock Island, Illinois (Map 60), to Fort Snelling 
in the Minnesota Territory (Map 36), and back 
to Missouri may be indicated on the outline map. 
The decision by the Supreme Court that in these 
sojourns he had not lost his status as a slave, 
seemed to make slavery possible anywhere, despite 
the vote of legislatures. At Freeport (Map 48) 
Lincoln asked Douglas if this did not quite de- 
molish his theory of popular sovereignity, but it 
was replied that, whatever was a negro's legal 
status, his freedom would actually depend in any 
place upon the local regulations. If the student 
has sufficient time to read a full account of these 
famous debates in Illinois, such as that in McMas- 
ter's History, Vol. VIII, pages 318-337, he might 
indicate the whole itinerary, noticing the geo- 
graphical propriety of the different subjects dis- 
cussed to the various localities. Harper's Ferry, 
as the scene of John Brown's raid, should be 
shown (Map 58a). 

Using Map 54, indicate with candidate 's initials 
who carried each state in 1860. Note, but do not 
record, the close vote in many states, and especially 
the strength of Bell's Constitutional Union party 
in the South. 

Certain states seceded on hearing the result of 
this election : South Carolina, December 20, 1860 ; 
Mississippi, January 9, 1861 ; Florida, January 
10th; Alabama, January 11th; Georgia, January 



19th; Louisiana, January 26th; Texas, February 
1st. The conventions in these states, without wait- 
ing for popular vote, except in the case of Texas, 
sent delegates to Montgomery, Alabama (Map 
59a), where the "Confederate States of America" 
were formed, February 8, 1861. These states may 
be indicated with a large black C. Comparison 
with Map Study No. 19 recalls that these states 
were mostly well within the "Cotton Kingdom," 
which seemed the most prosperous and confidently 
self-sufficient section of the South. There re- 
mained two tiers of border slave states ; one group, 
consisting of North Carolina, Tennessee, and Ark- 
ansas, being adjacent to the seceding states, and 
the other, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Ken- 
tucky, and Missouri, to the free states. When 
Lincoln actually attempted to coerce the seceding 
members into obedience, the former border group, 
together with Virginia, joined them in sympathy, 
and should be marked with a C in some other 
color. (Do you beUeve any consideration of 
"political geography" influenced the selection of 
Bates, Blair, and Smith as members of Lincoln's 
cabinet 1 ) 

In his famous pronouncement on New Mexico, 
in the ' ' Seventh of March speech, ' ' Daniel Webs- 
ter had implied that slavery could not go where 
nature had determined otherwise. As you survey 
your map, with Map Study No. 3 in mind, does it 
seem to you that the South could ever have pre- 
served the balance of states? 



MAP STUDY No. 22 

THE CIVIL WAR 

Text: Bassett, pp. 518-571; Hosmer, Appeal to Arms; Outcome of the Civil War. 
Maps: United States; Eastern United States; South Atlantic States. 



THE student has now enjoyed, or, possibly, en- 
dured, the training of twenty-one map stu- 
dies, and may be expected himself to devise and 
execute a map to illustrate, in a comprehensive 
way, the military events of the Civil War. The 



155 



careful reading of the entire assignment, or some 
equally concise and satisfactory account, if any 
can be found, is essential before a line is drawn ; 
and it would next be well to make a close prelim- 
inary inspection of Maps 60 and 56a-59b. The 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



study should be carefully planned to show such 
essential matters as the routes of armies in the 
progress of campaigns, the part played by the 
navy, the railroad routes which made certain 
points of critical importance {e.g., Vicksburg and 
Chattanooga), the obstacles which made so arduous 
the road to Eichmond, the "wind gaps" in the 
Blue Eidge, making possible the intricate man- 
euvers in central Virginia. Why was Maryland 
necessary to the Federal government? How was 
the Shenandoah VaUey used by the Confederates ? 
Think constantly in terms of offensive and defen- 
sive strategy conditioned by rivers and mountains, 



and by railroads, for the first time of military im- 
portance in the history of the world. 

SUPPLEMENT 

On a sheet of plain paper draw columns for 
operations in the West, operations in the East, 
civil affairs, and foreign affairs. Then draw trans- 
verse lines marking off dinsions for 1861, 1862, 
1863, 1864, and 1865. After reading Bassett, 
Chapters XXIV-XXVII, indicate the events of 
those years in their proper columns. Particular 
attention should be paid to the process of emanci- 
pation. (See also Map 61.) 



MAP STUDY No. 23 

THE PEOCESS OF RECONSTEUCTION 

Text: Bassett, pp. 594-658; Dunning, Beconstruction: Political and Economic. 
Map: United States. 



TIIE process of reconstruction was influenced 
by political and social theories and by party 
rivalries ; not much by physical geography. This 
map study, therefore, is intended only to fix in 
the mind, by this visual means, what was done 
with the conquered South. 

From Map 63b indicate with letters L and J, 
where loyal governments were set up under Lincoln 
and under Johnson. The dates printed on this 
map, it will be seen, have nothing to do with the 
institution of these goverimients ; they were all 
established by the end of 1866, and are seen to 
be in states which early fell under control of the 
Union armies, except Virginia, where Pierpont's 
government at Alexandria, later at Eichmond, was 
recognize by the Presidents. Eaee riots at Mem- 
phis and New Orleans in the spring and summer 
of 1866, as well as the "black codes," were cited as 
evidence by radical Eepublicans to discredit the 
presidential plan ; and Johnson personally lost 
support by his bad manners. His route in "swing- 
ing 'round the circle" can be indicated, with the 
aid of Map 62, from the following quotation from 



Professor Dunning 's Beconstruction, page 81: 
"Having accepted an invitation to be present at 
the laying of the corner stone of a moniiment to 
Stephen A. Douglas, at Chicago, on September 
6th, Johnson employed the occasion to visit lead- 
ing Northern cities and appeal directly to the peo- 
ple for the cause which he represented. With a 
party that included Secretaries Seward and 
Welles, Postmaster-General Eandall, General 
Grant, and Admiral Farragut, he traveled, by 
easy stages, through New York state and southern 
Ohio to Chicago, and after the ceremony there, 
visited St. Louis and Indianapolis on the way back 
to Washington. From the outset the President's 
speeches at the various stopping places assumed 
a partisan character, aboiinding in self-praise and 
in denunciation of Congress ; and at Cleveland and 
St. Louis interruptions of the crowd, apparently 
calculated, drove him to retorts and extravagances 
of expression which were in the last degree of- 
fensive to dignity and good taste." The result in 
the autumn congressional election, so disastrous to 
the President, may be shown from Map 63a by 



156 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



marking with the letters A. and A.A. the states 
for and against the administration in the coming 
fortieth Congress. 

Encouraged by this result, Thaddeus Stevens 
and his joint committee on reconstruction, acting 
on ill-defined "war power supposed still to apper- 
tain to the unsettled conditions in the South, 
passed the drastic Reconstruction Act of March 2, 
1867, and the new Congress which organized itself 
in extraordinary session immediately after the ex- 
piration of its predecessor, continued with the 
supplementary acts of March 23d and July 19th, 
all passed over the President's veto/ Reference 
to Map 63b will recall that the government of 
I Tennessee, having indorsed the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment, had been accepted the previous year as a 
state in full membership. By the new acts Con- 
gress divided the remaining "conquered terri- 
tory, ' ' whose governments it had refused to recog- 
nize, into five military districts, which may be in- 
dicated as follows: Virginia; North and South 
Carolina; Georgia, Florida, and Alabama; Miss- 
issippi and Arkansas; and Louisiana and Texas. 
A general was assigned to the command of each 
of these new districts. 

After reading the text assignment, locate, using 
a key, a state serving as a model for the rest of 
the South in the intimidation of the negro ; a state 
twice visited with military government after 
March 2, 1867; the birthplace of the Ku-Klux 
Klan (Map 60) ; five other places of interest in 
the reconstruction period, explaining your selec- 

ttion on the key sheet. From Map 65b show vdth 
a heavy broken black outline the sections voting 
for Hayes in 1876, with a similar line of another 
color those voting for Tilden. Show also the con- 
tested states with their twenty -two electoral votes. 
In this map there appears the ' ' solid South, ' ' that 
has not forgotten, a political factor constant since 
the Civil War, as comparison with Maps 67, 70, 
77, and 79 will suggest. 

A study of the statistical data indicated here 
will explain why Ohio, New York, New Jersey, 
Indiana, and California have been called ' ' doubt- 
ful states." These maps exaggerate Ohio's con- 



1 See J. D. Eichardson, Messages and Papers of the 
Presidents, vol. vi, pp. 498, 531, 536. 



staney to the Republicans, inasmuch as she has 
chosen Democratic governors nine times since the 
Civil War; perhaps her Republican vote in na- 
tional elections has been encouraged by the fact 
that in seven of the twelve campaigns since 1876 
that party has presented an Ohio man as a candi- 
date; Benjamin Harrison, who grew to manhood 
in Ohio, was a citizen of Indiana, while Roosevelt 
and Hughes were from New York. Blaine, the 
' * gentleman from Maine, ' ' was the only candidate 
whose nomination could not be explained, in part, 
by his residence in a doubtful state. The Demo- 
crats have shown a similar discrimination of their 
nominees from 1868 to 1912, only Hancock and 
Bryan were not New Yorkers, Wilson is from 
New Jersey, and Cox from Ohio. Massachusetts, 
though Republican in elections where the tariff 
is involved, has frequently elected Democratic 
governors, which may be partially accounted for 
by the presence of a considerable Irish population 
(Map 75). 

But as one closely examines these statistics, 
for example, in 1884 (Map 67), he may be sur- 
prised at the small vote in the "solid" Southern 
states in comparison with the number of presi- 
dential electors. This is due to the fact that the 
colored population, by reason of circumstances 
and Democratic devices, are not proportionally 
represented at the polls. When one learns that in 
aU this section more than fifteen per cent, of the 
negroes are illiterate, one understands the argu- 
ment of danger offered by the whites to explain 
why the negro should not be encouraged to ex- 
ercise the franchise. In local elections they be- 
lieve it would be quite disastrous in many dis- 
tricts, for the negroes are in the majority in an 
area approximately the same as that of the heaviest 
cotton production before the Civil War (Map 
Study No. 19), while along the Mississippi, and 
in the band of counties across south central Ala- 
bama, together with two counties in Florida, six 
in Georgia, and four in South Carolina, they con- 
stitute more than three-fourths of the population. 
The old cotton area is also precisely that now show- 
ing the greatest proportion of rented farms. The 
center of colored population has stood for two 
generations past in the vicinity of the boundary 



157 



HAEPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



line between Alabama and Georgia, not far from 
Tennessee, though it is probable that the 1920 
census may disclose that it has recently moved 
somewhat north, due to the labor migrations dur- 
ing the Great War. An indication of all these 
data on the map will locate the negro problem. 
The drama of the Civil War has closed, but this 
after-piece goes on. 

There remain two other matters more or less 
remotely connected with the military events of 
the war, which can be fixed in the mind by means 
of the map. Napoleon III, Emperor of the French, 
had placed Prince Maximilian of Austria on an 
imperial throne in Mexico in 1864, thus taking 
advantajge of our preoccupation to flout and 
violate our sensibilities represented in the Monroe 
Doctrine. In 1866 General Sheridan was ordered 
to proceed with 52,000 men to the Rio Grande in 
the vicinity of Brownsville and Point Isabel (Map 
Study No. 20), where his threatening attitude in- 
creased the effectiveness of Secretary Seward's 



diplomacy, and Napoleon abandoned his enter- 
prise, lea\'ing Maximilian to a tragic fate. Of 
quite a different character was another border 
demonstration. Great Britain's coolness to the 
Federal cause during the early years of the war 
made it even easier than usual for Irish veterans 
of our battles to draw together for a stroke to 
free their ancestral home. Most of the American 
Fenians, as they were called, to the embarrass- 
ment of our Department of State gave support, 
in 1866, to invasions into Canada. The first raid, 
planned to start from Eastport, Maine (Map 47), 
was prevented by prompt action of American and 
British officials and forces, but thousands of armed 
men did cross the boundary from Buffalo, at 
Rouse's Point, New York (Map 47), and St. Al- 
bans, Vermont (Map 34). The Canadian govern- 
ment soon checked these forays, though not tiU 
one or two so-called battles had been fought and 
about two and a half million dollars had been ex- 
pended from the provincial treasuries. 



MAP STUDY No. 24 

CREATING WEALTH: MINES, RANCHES, FARMS, RAILROADS, 

MILLS 

Text : Bassett, pp. 676-691, 731-734 ; Sparks, National Development, pp. 53-67, 251-264. 
Map: United States. 



THE restoration of white government in the 
South early in the administration of Presi- 
dent Hayes came as a relief to a country weary of 
the old moral issue of slavery and its consequences. 
It was toward the "West that the eye of the new 
nation now was turned to see how it might best 
be developed, for the general good and, especially, 
for individuals. The old Far West of the early 
nineteenth century (Map 15a), knowing only the 
hoof -beat of the buffalo and the savage cry of the 
beasts of wood and plain now and then pursued 
by red men, had been penetrated and explored, 
as we have seen, by 1848 (Map Study No. 20). 
But the trappers who roamed the wilderness were 
not left undisturbed, and the West of Irving 's 
Astoria and Parkman's Oregon Trail gave way to 
that of Bret Harte's Boating Camp. 



On the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, or 
snow-capped mountains, certain Mormon traders 
had gathered to sell supplies to the "Argonauts" 
en route to California. Too far away from Salt 
Lake City to enjoy the benefits of the territorial 
government of Utah (Map 48), in the later 'fifties 
the citizens of Carson Citj' (frontispiece) and sur- 
rounding settlements attempted to form a separate 
territory to be known as Washoe, but without im- 
mediate success. In 1859 near by there was un- 
covered the Comstock lode, astonishingly rich in 
gold and silver. Virginia City and other similar 
pine-board towns were rapidly run up by miners 
in this Washoe region, a few miles northeast of 
Lake Tahoe, at the angle of the California bound- 
ary. Efforts toward statehood were now redoubled, 
the territory of Nevada was set off, in 1861, though 



158 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



its population was only 7,000, and, inasmuch as 
the Eepublican leaders in Congress felt that two 
more senatorial votes might be useful in their con- 
duct of reconstruction, it was admitted as a state 
in 1864. Subsequently other mining areas were 
developed along the ridge just east of the south- 
west border, at Eureka (in 1869 ; the central part 
of the state), and at Tonapah (in 1900, about 150 
miles southeast of Carson City), these being some- 
what more distinguished for silver. Nevada re- 
maras the most sparsely settled state in the Union 
(Map 68). 

The vast mineral resources of the Rocky Moun- 
tains as well began to be revealed about the time 
that great armies were clashing in battle thousands 
of miles to the eastward. In 1858 gold had been 
discovered on the plains not far from modern 
Denver (frontispiece), and a considerable emigra- 
tion from the East began, stimulated somewhat 
by the hard times following the panic of 1857. 
Although within the area of the Kansas territory 
(Map 55), the miners, to preserve order, organized 
an extra-legal government of their own, which 
gave law as the "Territory of Jefferson" until 
1861, when, dropping one degree of longitude 
claimed to the west and two of latitude to the 
north, it was given formal status under the name 
of Colorado, so called from the ruddy glow of the 
sunset on the mountains. The war halted, but did 
not wholly stop, this immigration, and with peace 
releasing many adventurous young men to carve 
their fortunes from these hills and gulches, the 
population was considerably increased. A Repub- 
lican Congress attempted to admit it as a state in 
1867, but failed before the veto of President 
Johnson, and eight years passed before the en- 
abling act became law, Colorado, the following 
year, becoming the "Centennial State. "^ 

The miners on their way to Colorado oftentimes 
encountered the immense herds of beef cattle be- 
ing driven on their dusty way between their win- 
ter ranges in Texas and those of the warmer 



1 The treasures of the earth have seemed quite inex- 
haustible; the opening of the Cripple Creek vein (a short 
distance south of the center of the state), in 1893, brought 
many to the state, and, indeed, a large proportion of 
Colorado's inhabitants have some connection with the 
mining industry. 



159 



months in the far-away territories of Dakota and 
Montana. The cowboys and their rivals, the shep- 
herds, paid small attention to the boundaries of 
Indian reservations and had many a fierce en- 
counter with the roaming braves. But in this they 
but shared the adventures of the miners who dur- 
ing the Civil "War had rushed to the gold diggings 
in what is now southwestern Idaho and western 
Montana and on the Sweetwater River (Wyo- 
ming; Map 36). The "War Department sent many 
of its best commanders to subdue the savages, espe- 
cially those following Spotted Tail, Red Cloud, 
and Sitting Bull, but success came slowly and 
after heavy losses. The force of Gen. George A. 
Custer, for example, was annihilated by the Sioux 
near the juncture of the Bighorn and the Little 
Bighorn Rivers, in 1876. The Indian, the miner, 
the rancher, and wide unpeopled spaces — ^this was 
the ""Wild "West" of the generation following the 
Civil "War, reaching its full development about 
1885. But this isolation could not long continue. 

The connection between the eastern coastal plain 
and the Mississippi Valley grew steadily better 
after the Civil "War, as may be seen from Map 62. 
Show the route toward Chicago taken by the prin- 
cipal lines of the following systems: Vanderbilt, 
Pennsylvania, Erie, Grand Trunk, and the Mobile 
and Ohio together with the Illinois Central. Rail- 
roads, which in the East came as a convenience, 
connecting old-established towns, have paved the 
way for population in western America. Striking 
out across the prairies and cutting through the 
mountains, they have taken with them hundreds 
of thousands of farmers and business men who 
have created commonwealths. For such costly 
undertakings it was felt that government aid was 
indispensable, and great grants were made, espe- 
cially between 1850 and 1871, in the shape of 
alternate sections along the routes surveyed. "It 
is estimated that under the various railway acts no 
less than 155,524,992 acres have been given to 
railways. ... It has been profitable for them to 
develop population and industries along their 
lines, and they have accordingly used their grants 
for the upbuilding of the "West." This area, so 
granted, totals to more than two and one-half times 
that of the New England states. Using both maps, 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



62 and 83, show the routes of the Union Pacific, 
whose final spike was driven near Odgen, Utah, 
May 10, 1869, the Southern Pacific from New 
Orleans to San Francisco in 1883; the Atchison, 
Topeka, and Santa Fe, extending from the lower 
Missouri Valley, with St. Louis and Kansas City 
as important terminals, through southeastern Col- 
orado, northern Arizona, and New Mexico, to the 
same goal in the same year ; the Northern Pacific 
also in 1883; and the Great Northern, which Mr, 
Hill completed from St. Paul to Puget Sound a 
decade later. Indicate the roads receiving land 
grants, and twenty towns begun or developed be- 
cause of the railroads. Consider the thought of 
the Indians as they watched the engineers and 
laborers. 

The facilities of transportation made new min- 
ing areas important. The anthracite coal fields of 
the Lehigh Valley, in northeastern Pennsylvania, 
had produced a high-grade fuel since the 'twenties, 
and the great Appalachian area, stretching from 
west-central Pennsylvania into Alabama, had been 
more and more largely developed. The railroads 
made the fields of West Virginia and the Hocking 
Valley in Ohio particularly productive near the 
close of the century. At the same time deposits 
in southeastern Colorado and on the flanks of 
the high ridge of the Rockies in the northern part 
of that state were uncovered, and became, some 
years later, famous for bitter labor disputes or for 
the excellence of their product. Eastern Illinois, 
the adjacent part of Indiana, and, to a smaller 
extent, central Missouri, have also become famous 
for their soft coal. 

The vicinity of Pittsburg, with its myriad smok- 
ing chimneys, attests the human benefit when coal 
and iron meet. The coal here has outlasted the 
iron, but, since it has cost more to transport, 
usually the ore has been carried to those furnaces 
from other fields. The Lake Superior beds along 
the northern peninsula of Michigan produced 
about as much as Pennsylvania in the later 'seven- 
ties, but though their production was increased 
about eightfold in the next three decades, north- 
eastern Minnesota, with its Vermillion (1884) and 
Messabi (1892) ranges, the latter the richest in 
the world, surpassed it at the beginning of the 



twentieth centuiy. The ore boats ply their steady 
way through the Lakes to the coal and smelting 
region. The hills surrounding Birmingham, Ala- 
bama (Map 82b), j'ield coal, iron, and limestone 
in close proximity, and in the last three decades 
have made that city famous for its steel, while 
Pueblo, Colorado, with less supply, but advan- 
tageous marketing position, has become the "Pitts- 
burg of the West. ' ' The Adirondack region, early 
of importance, still produces a considerable ton- 
nage of ore. The development of more and better 
railroads has made it possible, in late years, econ- 
omically to bring fuel to the Lake ports, where it 
meets the ore brought from the Lake Superior 
fields, and in consequence such places as Chicago 
and near-by Gary, Indiana, as well as Cleveland 
and Buffalo, have become important in the steel 
industry. Two Harbors and Marquette (Map 
82b) are important ore-shipping points. 

In I\Iap Study No. 4 we traced the route of 
Jean Nicolet, who in 1634 was sent by Champlain 
to investigate the reputed copper beds on tlie 
western shores of the Great Lakes. But seven 
generations of savage red men lived and died be- 
fore the rich mines of the northern peninsula were 
opened to the world in 1845. The Calumet and 
Hecla mine in the central part was at one time 
probably the most profitable in the world, but 
about 1890 the discovery of the copper mountains 
in western Montana gave Butte (Map 83) and 
neighboring Anaconda the leading place, and by 
1910 the field in southwestern Arizona had sur- 
passed all others, its industry centering in such 
towns as Bisbee, near the Mexican border. Salt 
Lake County in Utah now produces enough cop- 
per to rank that state above ]\Iichigan. 

The great areas of agricultural production are 
shown in Map 82b and have not changed in any 
marked degree in tweny years. It would be in- 
structive to indicate from this same source, using 
a key, three areas producing each of the following 
commodities : cement, lumber, wool, and petroleum. 
Most of the zinc mined in the United States comes 
from northwestern Missouri and the adjacent part 
of Kansas, while most of the country's lead is 
found here and in the St. Francis field, also in 
Missouri, not far west of Ste. Genevieve, though 



160 



HAEPER'S ATLAS OF AMEKICAN HISTORY 



the Utah mines have become important competi- 
tors. The flaxseed industry is located in the 
eastern part of the Dakotas. Locate two cities in 
your own state important for some specialty. The 
following brief chronology of inventions illustrates 
the rapidity of the technical changes in the new 
industrial development : 

1875 — Bell's telephone between Boston and Salem. 
1879 — Brush arc street-lighting system, installed in San 

Francisco. 
1882 — Edison's plant for incandescent lighting opened 

in New York City. 
1885 — Edison's electric street cars introduced in Eich- 

mond, Virginia, and Baltimore (see Map 

24) .1 

In 1890 (Map 68) the far-western frontier line, 
which bounds the unsettled area, was crowded off 
the continent, and thoughtful observers speculated 
as to the result upon American society of the pass- 
ing of the American opportunity resting upon de- 
sirable "free land." In Map Study No. 17 we 
traced the westward course of the center of popu- 
lation to 1860 ; we may now carry it on from 1860 
to 1910: 



Tear 


North Latitude 


West Longitude 


1860 


39° 


82° 49' 


1870 


39° 12' 


83° 36' 


1880 


39° 4' 


84° 40' 


1890 


39° 12' 


85° 33' 


1900 


39° 10' 


85° 49' 


1910 


39° 10' 


86° 32' 



This last-named point, at Bloomington, Indiana, is 
still a great distance from the center of the area of 
the United States, a point midway on the boundary 
between Kansas and Nebraska. Indeed, it may 

1 See C. A. Beard, Contemporary America (Kew York, 
1915). 



never reach it, for although the development of 
the mines and the fields has pulled the people 
westward, and manufactures with them (in 1900 
the center of manufacturing had already reached 
west-central Ohio), yet, such has been the growth 
of cities on the Atlantic coastal plain, that it is 
possible the final figures of 1920 will show a re- 
cession to the east. If time permits, it would be 
interesting to indicate the successive centers of 
population in your home state during the last gen- 
eration. What has brought about this movement 1^ 

We shall have occasion, in a subsequent map 
study, to trace the progress of immigration since 
the Civil War, but it is desirable here to indicate 
from Map 75, in a general way, the distribution of 
the northern-European period, which ended in the 
'eighties.^ Notice that the South, for the most 
part, remained almost as much uninfluenced by 
foreign immigration in the second half of the nine- 
teenth century as it had in the first. 

Place in appropriate states, consulting the index, 
or an encyclopedia, the initials of the following 
leaders mentioned by Bassett, Chapters XXXIV- 
XXXV, as prominent in the 'eighties : Carl Schurz, 
John Sherman, R. C. Conkling, B. F. Butler, T. 
C. Piatt, J. G. Blaine, T. Roosevelt, D. B. Hill, T. 
B. Reed, L. Q. C. Lamar, A. P. Gorman, Matthew 
Quay, R. P. Bland, T. V. Powderly. On a separate 
sheet, in sentence notes, explain the importance 
of each. 



1 Data may be found in plates 119-132 in the Statisti- 
cal Atlas of the United States, 1914, published by the De- 
partment of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washing- 
ton, D. C, and available at the nearest public library. 

2 The Scandinavian area given in northeastern Pennsyl- 
vania should extend north of the line to include James- 
town, New York, 



MAP STUDY No. 25 

THIED PARTIES AND OTHER CRITICS OF *'BIG BUSINESS'^ 

Text: Bassett, pp. 707-715, 721-740. 
Maps: United States (3). 



IT was the custom during the 'eighties and early 
'nineties for American periodicals to print sta- 
tistics of comparative national production in the 
main staples of the world, frequently catching the 
eye with rows of pictured grain bags, coal hods, 
steel rails, etc., beginning with those of giant size 
and dwindling down to dwarfs. The journalists 
were gratified to notice that the products of the 
United States demanded more and more space in 
this graphic presentation, crowding its competitors 
into smaller and smaller compass; and "captains 
of industry ' ' increasingly supplied the theme for 
eulogistic editorials. That America was growing 
rich and powerful there could be no doubt, and 
statesmen rubbed their hands in satisfaction. 

But there were many who dissented, many who 
expressed their admiration for the labor and in- 
telligence that brought these things to pass, but 
maintained that the benefits were ill-distributed, 
that those who worked the hardest got the least, 
and that the government was managed by the 
special beneficiaries. The farmers who in the latter 
'sixties had borrowed paper money to develop 
their homestead sections or "railroad lands," 
found, some years later, with deflation of the 
currency, that their debts must be discharged in 
specie, and clamored for more greenbacks, so that 
money for repayment might be found as easily as 
they had once found it to borrow. They bitterly 
complained of the freight rates charged by the rail- 
roads, and the taxes which they had to pay in 
order to retire the bonds that states and cities had 
once issued as subventions to these utilities. On 
these and other issues, a farmers' or "granger" 
movement became politically successful by 1873, 
in Illinois, soon followed by Iowa, Wisconsin, and 
Minnesota, which may be indicated with the letter 
G as states early important in the agrarian pro- 



test ; it sufSces now to say that their organization 
spread throughout the Middle West, but collapsed, 
in part from indiscretions in co-operative manu- 
facturing, and its members merged with other ad- 
herents of the Greenback party. 

Agriculture in the South was reorganized after 
the Civil War with greatest difficulty. Small 
planters, who grew more numerous, found it nec- 
essary to pledge their crops to merchants, to pay 
a ruinous rate of interest, and almost invariably 
sink deeper into debt. Finding the dominant 
Democratic party cold to their appeals, during the 
middle 'eighties, another farmers' movement be- 
gan in Texas and, after some false starts, spread, 
by amalgamation, through Louisiana, Arkansas, 
Tennessee, Kentucky, and Mississippi. Though 
called the Farmers' and Laborers' Union of Amer- 
ica, it was more widely known as the ' ' Southern 
Alliance, ' ' the initials of which name may indicate 
the early development in those states. The move- 
ment spread through the entire South, but its fol- 
lowers remained in a comparatively small minority 
until after 1890. Meanwhile, in the old Granger 
states, hard times resulting from the competition 
with foreign grain fields reinforced old grievances, 
and a Northwestern Alliance was set up, extending 
its propaganda with success also into the Dakotas, 
Nebraska, and Kansas. But these enterprises, 
like their predecessors, drooped, and were aban- 
doned in discouragement. 

In place of these social and nonpartisan associa- 
tions, in 1890, came political activity. The suffer- 
ings of the farmers brought about a violent up- 
heaval in Kansas, and were it possible to represent 
turmoil and excitement on a map, that state might 
be emphatically designated. At Omaha, Nebraska 
(Map 83), in 1892, a convention launched the 
People's party, soon to be known as the "Popu- 



162 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



lists, ' ' and nominated General Weaver as a presi- 
dential candidate. Besides the usual declarations 
for government ownership and greenbacks, the 
convention demanded that silver be purchased by 
the government and coined in whatever amounts 
presented. This last proposal greatly pleased the 
silver-mining states (Map Study No. 24), as well 
as those who wished "cheap money," and may 
account, in part, for the Populist vote, which may 
be generally indicated from Map 70.^ 

It will be noticed that six new states had been 
admitted since the last election, the two Dakotas, 
Washington, and Montana (1889) and Wyoming 
and Idaho (1890). A heavy outline might indicate 
these states. It was generally thought that the 
admission of so many states had resulted from a 
bargain between the Republicans and Democrats, 
but both parties refused support to the applica- 
tion of Utah, for, though her population was three 
and a half times that of Wyoming, the social con- 
trol of the Mormon Church, despite the Edmunds- 
Tucker Act of 1887, was considered annoying, and 
the plural marriages, still celebrated in defiance 
of the national laws of 1862 and 1882, were con- 
sidered scandalous.^ Its statehood did not come 
until 1896, and may be so labeled. 

Looking to the east, beyond the Mississippi, we 
find that the farmers were not the only Americans 
who felt themselves exploited by capitalists. The 
industrial laborers had formed great national 
unions, and with this mutual support had fought 
through more or less successfully a number of 
important strikes. After reading Bassett, pages 
742-743, show the location of those mentioned, 
with sentence notes on the back of the map as to 
the significance of each. 

On such an issue as the tariff, of course, econ- 
omic geography goes far to explain the position of 
the contestants. The farmer is likely to see in a 
rise of customs duties, except on agricultural pro- 
ducts, only a corresponding rise in prices, while 
the mill owner and the laborer see the possibility 
of a high scale of profits and wages. Different sec- 



1 Observe, but do not indicate, the large Populist vote 
polled in Oregon, Wyoming, Nebraska, South Dakota, 
Alabama, and Texas. 

2 Mormonism is hardly less strong in Idaho, and is im- 
portant in Arizona, Wyoming, and Nevada. 



tions have their special preferences ; General Han- 
cock, as the Democratic candidate for President in 
1880, had not been so absurd as he was represented, 
when he declared that the tariff was "a local 
issue. ' ' On a fresh outline sheet indicate the vote 
in the House of Representatives on the McKinley 
bill of 1890 (Map 69), remembering the rates pro- 
posed on many farm products as well as manu- 
factured goods. The irritation at the increased 
prices resulting from the operation of this law had 
a considerable effect upon the election of 1892, al- 
ready shown in this map study. The bill proposed 
by Mr. W. L. Wilson of West Virginia, reducing 
the tariff, passed the House, but was amended up- 
ward by Senator Gorman and his colleagues in 
the other House. In the light of its schedules it 
wiU be instructive to observe the vote on the Wil- 
son measure as first presented, August 13, 1894 
(Map 71), though it need not be reproduced upon 
the outline map. 

With all these conflicting interests in mind show 
on your tariff map with clearly printed initials 
M and B, preferably using different colors, the 
result by states of the electoral vote according to 
the following table, placing a small w in those 
states which gave some electoral votes to the Popu- 
list running mate of Bryan, Thomas E. Watson : 



163 



McEinley 
and 
State Hobart 

Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 8 

Colorado 

Connecticut ..... 6 

Delaware 3 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 24 

Indiana 15 ' 

Iowa 13 

Kansas 

Kentucky 12 

Louisana 

Maine 6 

Maryland 8 

Massachusetts ... 15 

Michigan 14 

Minnesota 9 

Mississippi 



By ran 

11 

8 

1 

4 



4 

13 

3 



10 
1 

8 



SewaU 

11 

5 

1 

4 



4 

13 

3 



10 
1 

4 



Watson 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



ilcEinley 
and 
Slate Hobart 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire . 4 

New Jersey .... 10 

New York 36 

North Carolina . . 

North Dakota . . 3 

Ohio 23 

Oregon 4 

Pennsylvania ... 32 

Ehode Island ... 4 

South Carolina . . 

South Dakota ... 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 3 

Vermont 4 



Byron 

17 

3 

8 

3 



11 



9 

4 

12 

15 

3 



Sewall 

13 

2 

4 

3 



9 

2 

12 

15 

2 



McKinlev 

and 
Wataon State Hobart Bvran SewaU Wattofi 

4 Virginia 12 12 

1 Washington 4 2 2 

4 West Virginia . . 6 . . . . . . 

Wisconsin 12 

Wyoming 3 2 1 

271 176 149 27 

Compare this result with that of the election 
of 1892. The fusion with the Democrats had been, 
of course, a bitter pill for Southern Populists 
to swallow, and many voted for ]\IcKinley. 

Place the initials of the following leaders, men- 
tioned by Bassett, Chapters XXXIV-XXXVI, 
in the appropriate states: Richard Olney, T. F. 
Bayard, T. E. Watson, W. McKinley, E. V. Debs, 
B. P. Tillman, J. G. Carlisle, W. L. Wilson, and 
J. B. Weaver. 



MAP STUDY No. 26 

WORLD POWER 

Text : Bassett, pp. 764-827 ; Latane, America as a World Power. 
Maps : World ; Mexico and West Indies. 



THE United States, whose "manifest destiny" 
had once seemed to require only its expansion 
straight westward to the Pacific coast, had no 
sooner accomplished that than it turned attention 
to other portions of the continent. Gouverneur 
Morris was asked, in 1803, what he had thought 
in the Constitutional Convention of the probable 
extension of the United States, and wrote in reply, 
' ' I knew as well as I do now, that all North Amer- 
ica must at length be annexed to us."^ The failure 
of our military scheme of conquest in 1812 had 
dimmed our hopes of planting the Stars and 
Stripes on Hudson Bay, but to the southward we 
met with no such rebuff. In 1848 some had de- 
sired all of Mexico, and in the 'fifties. Southern- 
ers, looking for plantation soil, supported schemes 
for annexation in Central America, to say nothing 



1 J. Sparks, Life of Gouverneur Morris (Boston, 1832), 
vol. iii, p. 185. 



of Cuba. The arrangement' at Appomattox sealed 
the fate of slaverj', but the victory rather whetted 
the national ambition to expand. Hence, in 1867, 
Secretary Seward found support for purchasing 
Alaska from Russia, whose friendliness during the 
late war was appreciated by the government. 
Russia, so distant from these shores, was, on her 
part, glad to sell, lest they be seized at any moment 
by her inveterate enemy, the British Empire, 
whose boundary here marched with hers. Though 
the new territory, which may be indicated from 
the frontispiece (noting its size compared with the 
United States of 1866), was derisively described 
as "Seward's Ice Box" and "Walrussia," it was 
declared quite habitable, Sitka having a lower 
average temperature than Ottawa. Its settlement, 
despite these reassuring accounts, was long de- 
layed. Soon after the Civil War there were at- 
tempts to gain a foothold in the Caribbean, in the 



164 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



Danish "West Indies (now the Virgin Islands; 
frontispiece), and in Santa Domingo (Map 73), 
but they did not meet the approval of the nation. 

Considerations of trade, a self-sufficient attitude 
toward European monarchies, and a genuine desire 
to be of service were all to be found in the policy 
of Secretary Blaine, first expressed in 1881, to 
draw all the American nations into closer rela- 
tions. The knowledge of our citizens of the lands 
to the south was so insufficient as to lead many to 
consult a map in following the Secretary's notes. 
Lest this general ignorance be not yet entirely dis- 
pelled, the student is now asked to consult some 
modern map and, using a key when indispensable, 
to indicate on the world map the name of every 
country south of the Kio Grande. Notice the 
changes since 1823 (Map 35a), when the Monroe 
Doctrine was announced: "Venezuela had been 
marked off from Columbia in 1829, and Ecuador 
in 1830; Bolivia, in 1825, had achieved indepen- 
dence ; the Patagonian desert had been conquered 
by 1880, and the land divided between Chile and 
the Argentine Republic, though the boundary was 
not definitely settled until 1902. The three parts 
of Guiana stiU remain as European colonies. 
Locate the boundary between victorious Chile and 
defeated Peru, which Secretary Blaine attempted 
to adjust through mediation in 1881, and Val- 
paraiso, where sailors from the U. S. S. Baltimor& 
were attacked by BaLmecedists, October 16, 1892. 

Secretary Blaine, eight years later, did have the 
pleasure of presiding over a Pan-American Con- 
gress at "Washington, which led to several treaties 
of reciprocity in custom.? duties. The South 
American republics had come, for a time, to look 
to the United States as their champion in world 
affairs, and Venezuela had for some years ap- 
pealed to the ' ' Colossus of the North ' ' to arbitrate 
a boundary dispute between herself and Great 
Britain (Map 35a). President Cleveland invoked 
the Monroe Doctrine, strengthened by tradition 
since 1823 and insisted upon this arbitration even 
to a threat of war. An international arrangement, 
in 1897, resulted in moving the boundary slightly 
to the northwest, as may be indicated on our map. 
Locate Puerto Cabello (a few miles west of Car- 
acas), which President Roosevelt allowed Ger- 



many, Great Britain, and Italy to bombard, in 
1903, without remonstrance, since they proposed 
only to collect debts and not take territory. 

Our federal system, by which police and prop- 
erty laws are within the jurisdiction of the state 
and foreign relations are in charge of the national 
government, might conceivably make inevitable 
a war under sired by the majority of Americans. 
After reading Bassett, Chapter XXXVI, locate 
the seat of the Mafia disturbances of 1891 and the 
area of anti-Mongolian feeling in the United 
States. Our world trade has made a large navy 
seem indispensable; but a na\7' effective for dis- 
tant service is not possible without coaling sta- 
tions. On this consideration, in 1878, our gov- 
ernment obtained from native chiefs the right to 
use Pago Pago (pronounced Pango Pango) on 
Tutuila Island in the Samoan group (Map 80b, 
noticing inset) as a coaling station. Germany 
and England obtained similar rights in near-by 
ports. After civil wars among the natives, in 
which the Europeans were likely to become in- 
volved, a treaty was drawn up at Berlin between 
those powers and Samoa, providing for a joint 
protectorate which would nevertheless guarantee 
the autonomy of the native government. Con- 
tinued friction between the Germans on one side 
and the Americans and British on the other made 
a partition seem necessary, and by a convention at 
Washington, in 1899, the United States withdrew 
from all islands west of Tutuila. In 1900, Great 
Britain, in consideration of compensations else- 
where, withdrew, leaving Germany with Savaii, 
Upola, and six smaller islands, while the United 
States has Tutuila and also five others, including 
the Manua group. The German possessions, it 
will be observed, are larger, and they are more 
populous ; but the harbor of Pago Pago is the best 
in the group. These negotiations drew the atten- 
tion of Americans to the Pacific and reminded 
them that, in 1867, Brooks, or Midway, Islands 
(Map 80b), lying 1,100 miles west of Honolulu, 
were occupied by the commander of the U. S. S. 
Lackawanna, and similarly "Wake Island, thirty- 
two years later, was taken possession of by the 
commander of the U. S. S. Bennington. The 
interesting political incidents of the Hawaiian 



165 



HAKPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



controversy are familiar to the student from his 
reading, and he may now indicate these islands, 
with date of annexation. Honolulu, on the island 
of Oaku, is seen to be 2,100 miles from San Fran- 
cisco, and about 5,000 miles from Manila. In 1900 
the population of the group was 154,000 hav- 
ing increased 71 per cent, during the previous 
decade. 

To illustrate the Spanish- American "War, locate 
the place of the destruction of the Maine; the 
greatest naval victory of the war; Luzon, Min- 
danao, and Manila. Trace the route of Cervera, 
indicating the place of his destination, and the 
voyage of the Oregon. Show all the land acquired 
through the treaty with Spain, February 6, 1899 
(Maps 73, 74, and 80b). 

The United States co-operated in the interna- 
tional expedition to put down the Boxer Rebellion 
in China in 1900, but this expeditionary force was 
only one of many in the history of America. With 
the help of Map 82a and an encyclopedia, locate 
three places outside of North America visited by 
American forces, omitting those mentioned in this 
study, stating on the other side of the map sheet 
the occasion of each. 

Alaska, at first an object of jest and ridicule, 
was soon recognized as valuable. The boundary 
line, in 1867, had been run west of St. Lawrence 
Island (the largest island shown in the frontis- 
piece inset) and southwest to beyond the western 
point of the Aleutian Islands. About the center 
of the marine area lying between this line and the 
mainland were the Pribiloff Islands, the greatest 
nursery of fur seals in the world. The govern- 
ment, as early as 1866, prohibited the killing of 
seals on these islands, or in "adjacent waters," 
without special license. In 1886 British ships en- 
gaged in pelagic sealing — i.e., hunting with guns 
on the sea — were captured by an American reve- 
nue cutter, though they were sixty miles from 
land. There was much international discussion 
as to whether the United States had the right to 
enforce its law beyond the three-mile limit, and 
the case was finally, in 1893, submitted to an arbi- 
tration court. An ingenious argument was ad- 
vanced that seals had some of the characteristics 
of domestic animals and could be considered Amer- 



ican property, even out at sea, but the verdict of 
the court was whoUy in favor of the British. 

It was soon known that Alaska contained some 
gold; indeed, prospectors had been rewarded as 
early as 1861. Juneau, which may be indicated, 
with its gold field, from the frontispiece, was 
founded in 1880. But it was not until 1896, when 
the Klondike mines were opened in the Yukon 
Valley (frontispiece) that a rush came, reminis- 
cent of the days of the 'forty-niners. Four years 
later, Nome, on the Seward Peninsula, was the 
scene of a similar boom. The great wealth of the 
Klondike region made the question of the Cana- 
dian boundaiy, unsettled since the days of Rus- 
sian occupation, one of keen controversy and con- 
siderable importance. From our Map 65a show 
as accurately as possible on the world map the 
claims of the litigants and the final line awarded 
by the joint board of adjudication at London in 
1903. The main question was whether the lan- 
guage of the Russo- American treaties of 1825 and 
1867 had meant that the line should run across 
the fiords or around them. It will be seen that the 
decision favored the United States. Now that 
Juneau, the largest town in Alaska, was safely 
within the American border, it was made the seat 
of government for the region in 1906. 

The interest in a seaway from the Caribbean to 
the Pacific, which dated back to the days of Colum- 
bus, became more acute after the acquisition of 
California and the discovery of gold. Several 
routes were projected, which may be shown from 
Map 72, and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 
was intended to apply to any of them. But the 
surveys made between 1870 and 1875 showed that 
only those traversing Nicaragua and Panama, a 
part of Colombia, were of practical consideration, 
the preference being given at first to the former, 
though it would require locks to lower boats from 
the lake to the western ocean. An international 
conference, in 1879, decided that a sea-level canal 
be built from Colon to Panama (which locate), 
and construction was begun by a European com- 
pany in 1888, though its slowness was discourag- 
ing. Americans as late as 1900 planned a canal 
by the Nicaragua route, some work was begun, and 
finally Congress authorized its support in 1902, if 



160 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



no arrangement could be reached with Colombia 
as to the Panama route. From your reading you 
have learned of the diplomatic arrangements fin- 
ally leading to the establishment of the Canal 
Zone and the building of the canal, officially 
opened in 1915. 

After reading the assignment, locate, from Map 
81, the possessions, leased areas, and protectorates 
of the United States in the Caribbean region, giv- 



ing the date of acquisition of each. As a suggestion 
of the part played by the United States in world 
politics during this era, locate The Hague ; Ports- 
mouth, New Hampshire, where the Russo-Japanese 
treaty was signed ; and Algeciras (near Gibraltar), 
where America took part in the international con- 
ference held to consider Germany's complaints 
of France. Locate Tampico (Map 73) and Vera 
Cruz, important in our relations with Mexico. 



MAP STUDY No. 27 

EEFORMS AND ENTERPRISE OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

Text: Bassett, pp. 829-852; Ogg, National Progress. 
Maps: United States (2). 



ONE has but to turn to the first message of 
President Roosevelt to Congress to feel that 
public life in the new century was to mean some- 
thing more constructive and adventuresome than 
it had meant in the old. Experiments in govern- 
ment, particularly in the Western states, were 
being tried, that would have astonished the states- 
men of the 'eighties. Scientific men were bringing 
scientific methods in the solution of agricultural, 
business and social problems to the service of the 
government, in an era that looked hopefully toward 
progress and reform. It was urged, with earnest- 
ness, that the remedy for the e\als of democracy 
was more democracy — that direct participation of 
the people in state government was the way to 
banish bossism — and in 1912 eleven states had 
already adopted statewide initiative and referen- 
dum, and may be indicated with the letters I. & 
R., as follows: Oregon, California, Idaho, Mon- 
tana, Utah, Colorado, South Dakota, Oklahoma, 
Missouri, Arkansas, and Maine.^ The pioneer life 
making for equality before the face of nature was 
no doubt a democratic influence, and this insis- 
tence on a direct part in the government was not 
the only sentiment spreading from the West. As 
in Scandinavia, Finland, and the Antipodes, the 



1 Nevada and New Mexico had the referendum only ; the 
measures were pending in sis other states. 



women of the West bore an obviously equal part 
in the struggle for existence and were granted 
equality in political life. The letter W., with date, 
may indicate the states which had granted women 
fuU suffrage by the end of 1912: Wyoming 
(1869), Colorado (1893), Utah and Idaho (1896), 
Washington (1910), California, Arizona, Kansas, 
and Oregon (1912). It will be noticed that the 
admission of Oklahoma (1907), and Arizona and 
New Mexico (1911), which may be shown with 
heavy boundary lines, had strengthened the in- 
fluence of the West. 

It was claimed that woman suffrage would 
hasten the prohibition of the liquor traffic, and bo 
the event proved. But the statistics of statewide 
prohibition, as it was in 1912, show more connec- 
tion with the negro problem: Maine, Kansas, 
West Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Miss- 
issippi, and Georgia were already legally "dry." 
This connection became more apparent as the 
years went on, though these states marked with 
the letter P. will serve to show the sections of 
early development of this movement. The South 
was not cordial to the woman-suffrage propaganda, 
as it felt that the negro question would be stUl 
more complicated, and the manufacturers feared 
the influence of the women's vote upon the labor 
laws. A happy line along the northern boundary 



167 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



of Virginia, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Texas marlcs 
off the territory, as it stood in 1912, where more 
than half the boys of fourteen and fifteen years of 
age were engaged in gainful occupations, and 
South Carolina and Mississippi showed a like 
proportion of working girls. This was and is 
the region of child labor. 

With the exception of the liquor question, these 
issues, though at that time supposed by many 
legally to belong to state politics, found a place 
in the platform of the Progressive party, whose 
leader, Colonel Roosevelt, played a dramatic part 
in the campaign of 1912. Using Map 77, show 
with shading what party carried each state in 
that election. In many states the combined mi- 
norities outnumbered the successful Democrats. 

All three party platforms in 1912 agreed upon 
the need of conservation of natural resources, 
though this was more a concern of the Eastern 
consumer fearing high prices in the future, than 
of the Western exploiter intent on immediate 
gain. The public lands most available for farming 
and mining had largely been granted by the end 
of the nineteenth century ; yet more than 300,000 
acres (outside Alaska) remained, a considerable 
part of it eligible for lumbering and, if artificially 
watered, for agriculture. The following states had, 
at the time of that election, more than 15,000,000 
acres each, and should be marked with Roman 
numerals, according to rank in acreage : Arizona 
(39,625,195 A), California (20,853,637), Colorado 
(19,353,231), Idaho (17,915,672), Montana (21,- 
542,853), Nevada (55,138,593), New Mexico (31,- 
298,621), Oregon (16,545,522), Wyoming (32,255,- 
679). In his first message, more than a decade 
before, President Roosevelt had urged the with- 
holding of forest and mineral lands from grant for 
a time, and the expenditure of national funds to 
forward irrigation. The latter proposal naturally 
appealed to Senator Newlands of Nevada, and the 
Newlands Act of 1902 appropriated $20,000,000 
for that purpose, the United States now engaging 
directly in construction rather than confining it- 
self to co-operation with the states. With the help 
of Map 80a the student may now indicate the chief 
areas of irrigation provided by the Reclamation 
Service. The most famous enterprises are those 



of the Roosevelt Dam (280 feet high), and Salt 
River in south-central Arizona ; the Shoshone Dam 
in northern Wyoming; the Rio Grande develop- 
ment in New Mexico ; the Truckee project in the 
district of Lake Tahoe lying across the California- 
Nevada border ; and the Sun River project in the 
northwestern part of Montana. 

Wliereas most of the leaders whose residences 
we have indicated in former map studies have 
lived in the East, with the spread of population 
it was expected that the West would furnish its 
share. The success of the Democrats in 1912 and 
1916,^ of course, brought opportunity for national 
leadership to the south. Show by initials the 
home states of the following: R. M. LaFollette, 
Elihu Root, Jonathan Bourne, Boies Penrose, E. 
M. House, N. W. Aldrich, W. R. Borah, A. S. 
Burleson, Hiram Johnson, J. A. Reed, J. B. Pora- 
ker, F. W. Lane, Woodrow Wilson, V. L. Berger, 
Claude Kitchin, Champ Clark, H. C. Lodge. 

SUPPLEMENT 

On separate sheets of plain paper prepare 
graphic charts showing the course of population 
growth, urban residence, immigration. 

Population. — Lay out a rectangle 7V2 in. by 5 
in. Divide the short way into parallel sections 
14 in. long, representing the decades from 1800 
to 1910, and divide the long way into 29 sections, 
each 1/4 in. broad and representing each 10 mil- 
lions. Then plot a curve to show the growth in 
the United States according to the following statis- 
tics given in round niunbers : 1800 — 5 m., 1810 — 
7 m., 1820—91/4 m., 1830—13 m., 1840—17 m., 
1850—23 m., 1860—31 m., 1870— 38y2 m., 1880— 
50 m., 1890—63 m., 1900—75 m., 1910—92 
m. Draw also graphs showing the population of 
Russia, in millions, throughout the century : 38, 
42, 47, 53, 57, 62, 72, 78, 88, 98, 113, 138. Of 
Spain: 11, 11, 12, 13, 13, 14, 16, 17, 17, 18, 19, 20. 
Of France : 27, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 38, 38, 381/2, 39. 
Of United Kingdom: 16, 18, 21. 24, 27, 28, 29, 
32, 35, 38, 42, 45. 

Immigration. — Draw a 5-inch square and divide 



168 



1 Map 79 should be examined along with Map 77, but 
need not be reproduced. 



HARPER'S ATLAS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 



i 



it into i/^-ineh squares. Number decades along 
the top, beginning with 1820, and number millions 
along the left-hand side. Then plot the curve for 
the following statistics of total immigration by 
decades: 143,439; 599,125; 1,713,251; 2,598,214; 



2,318,824; 2,812,191; 5,246,616; 3,844,420; 8,203,- 
388 ; 6,347,380. The student is, of course, aware 
that it is not only the size of the immigration, 
but, since 1882, its new character, that constitutes 
the "problem." 



TEE END 



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